SUPERLUMINAL SPEED
TECHNOLOGY GAIN ASSISTED
ALFONSO LEON GUILLEN GOMEZ
BOGOTA, COLOMBIA, OCTUBRE DE 2001
Derechos Reservados
BOGOTA, COLOMBIA, OCTOBER OF
2001
Copyrights
GRATITUDES
The
express author its gratitude to professor doctor Aephraim M. Steinberg, of the
Department of Physics of the University of Toronto, Canada, who with its
fundamental explanations, facts the 9 October of 2001, contributes to scientific
severity in the correct interpretation, that is done in this work, since the
point of view of the laws that govern the phenomena optics, of the experiment
superluminal carried out in Princeton. Also, express its gratitude to professor
doctor Helmut Rechenberg of the Institute for the Physical one Max Planck of
Munich, Germany, who fixed the reach, of this experiment, with relation to the
theory of the Relativity of Albert Einstein and defines the experimental
conditions with respect to the superluminal velocities, in which would be
required of a new physical theory, concepts formulated September 26, 2000.
WORKS OF THE
AUTHOR
2. Proposed of experiment for to measure the speed of gravity, according to tides, 1993.
5. The law of the
inertia of the energy and the speed of gravity, 2004.
7. Gravity truly is a force and not the geometric effect of the curvature of spacetime, 2006.
ANTECEDENTS
INDICATE OF MATTERS
1.3 Properties of the
components of the atom
1.4 Electromagnetic
Interaction
1.6 Force of the
photons on the atoms
1.7 Quantum Structure
of the orbital
Board 1. Plan of the quantum structure of the
electrons in the atom
1.8 Fine Structures
and hyperfine inside the orbital
1.10 The constant one
of the fine structure
1.13 The evolution of
the electron inside the orbital
1.14 The orbital
transition of the electrons and the types of
radiation
Board 2.
Electromagnetic type of radiation according to the type of
transition
Chapter 2. The
electromagnetic wave
2.1 What is the
electromagnetic wave?
2.3 Anatomy of the
electromagnetic wave
2.4.2 Reflection,
refraction and diffraction
2.5 The transportation
of energy
Board 3. Composition
of the electromagnetic spectrum according to type of
radiation
2.7 Properties of the
lines spectrals
2.8 Some prominent
properties of the electromagnetic types of
waves
Chapter 3. The atom
and the electromagnetism and its application to
laser
3.1 The processes of
emission – absorption
3.2 The interaction
Hamiltonian
3.3 ¿Which is the
mechanism of the interaction among the atom and the electromagnetic
field?
3.5 The
electromagnetic emission
3.6 The
electromagnetic absorption
3.7 ¿What other
effects exist in the processes of emission and
absorption?
3.8 Universal
Principle of the interaction photon – charged
particle
3.9 The equation of
wave of Schrodinger (SWE)
3.12 The production of
the laser
3.12.2 The atomic
populations invested
3.12.3 The two basic
states of a population of atoms
3.12.4 Process of
optician pumps
3.12.5 Process of
emission stimulated of coherent light
3.13 Atomic
Populations of three states
3.15 The polarization
of Rabi and that of the spin of the photon
3.16 Effects
distorting potential of the laser
3.16.4 The profile of
the Doppler in the laser
3.17 The covering of
the walls of the cavity of the laser
3.18 Transportation of
data, voice, and image
3.19 Lasers of pulse
and continuous
3.21 The action of two
laser rays
Part 2. The
superluminal velocities
Chapter 4. The
electromagnetic interaction with the substantial middle and the subluminal
velocities
4.1 Velocities of the
photon, the energy, sign, phase and group
4.2 The
electromagnetic interaction in the limit among two
middles
4.3 The division of
the electromagnetic wave in pulses
4.4 Mechanisms of the
reflection and refraction
4.4.1 Refraction of
mechanical waves
4.4.2 Refraction of
the electromagnetic wave
4.4.3 Mechanical
Reflection of waves
4.4.4 Reflection of
the electromagnetic wave
4.4.5 Internal
Reflection total
4.4.6 The velocity
zero of the light
5 The experiment of
velocity superluminal based on the technology Gain
Assisted
5.4 The velocity of
the pulses of light
5.5 Relations among
the velocities of phase and group
5.7 The velocities of
phase and group can surpass C
5.8 The existing
problems around the greater velocity that C
5.9 The experiment of
Princeton
5.9.1 General
description of the experiment
5.9.2 Interpretation
of the experiment
5.9.3 Partial
Explanations that have been given
"The
problem of the knowledge...., it requires a reinterpretation ...and was not
possible this new conception of the knowledge inside the framework of the
Physical of Newton."
Hans
Reichenbach
Introduction
Between
1969 and 1970, against the theory
of the Relativity of Einstein, I exposed the theory of the existence of
speeds in the Universe greater that C, one of which would be the speed of
gravitation (1), basing on the quantum theory of Andrei Saharov on the gravity,
that he proposed, in 1967.
After
thirty years, nowadays, is accepted that "in the nature certainly velocities
exist greater that speed of the light, for example, connected with the velocity
of phase of the electromagnetic waves in solids", as the doctor Helmut
Rechenberg, of the Institute for the Physical Max Planck, in
On the
other hand, during the passed nineties, among others, the scientists have
developed two basic types of technologies of superluminal velocities (2). The
oldest one, the technology of the evanescent waves, known as technology tunnel,
created, in 1992, by the team of the doctor Gunter Nimtz, in Colony, Germany,
where 30C has been reached. And the technology Gain Assisted produced, in the
2000, by the team of Lijun Wang, Alexander Kuzmich and Arthur Dogariu, in
Nevertheless, by the
previous physical facts of the existence in the nature of superluminal
velocities and of the technologies for to produce superluminal velocities yet
cannot be disputed crucially to Einstein. To respect Rechenberg says: "The
pertinent question for the Relativity of Einstein is if any information with
those waves can be transported. The experiment realized in
In 1998,
the mathematician and astronomer, doctor Tom Van Flandern, investigator of the
University of Maryland, United States, questioned seriously to Einstein,
utilizing its own theory of the Relativity to show as, with its geometric
conception of the gravity, violates the principle of causality, which conducted,
to this investigator, has to adopt the explanation that the gravity is a
different form of radiation to electromagnetism.
(1) This
theory was published in the Sunday Weekly of “El Siglo”, in four articles.
(2) It is
understood for luminal the velocity C.
(3) Gunter
Nimtz transmitted the 40 symphony of Mozart to 4.7C, but it does not be worth
this as information or sign.
That is
to say, Tom contextualizes gravitation inside the quantum phenomenon. Since this
perspective, Van Flandern applied the techniques used for the electromagnetic
field, and it reckoned that the velocity of the gravity is minimum 20 thousand
million C (4). This result is consistent with the deduction carried out by the
author, in 1970, and then ratified in its proposals of measurement of the
gravity (5), mainly formulated in 1993, 1995 and 1996.
Toward
ends of 2000, the necessary infrastructure to measure experimentally the
velocity of the gravity, remained established for the four large projects that
in the world have that purpose, during the next five-year period. These they are
GEO, in
If it is
confirmed that the velocity of the gravity surpasses C, as Rechenberg says:
"would be required of a different theory from the Relativity of Einstein". Tom
Van Flandern proposes to take up again the theory of the Relativity of Lorentz,
that if it permits the existence of velocities greater that C.
In the
present work the author presents the experiment of Princeton, that constitutes a
true feat of the human ingenuity to have managed to carry the velocity of group
of the electromagnetic wave to 310C, without loss of energy he be
produced.
The
leader of the team, of the NEC Research Institute Physical Science, that he
carried out the experiment is the physicist and astronomer Lijun Wang Ph.D., of
the
This
work, in the first to fourth chapters, develops some of the themes worked by
Wang, necessary for the comprehension of the technology Gain Assisted. And in
the fifth chapter the superluminal experiment is
presented.
(4) The
author, in February of 2001, published the work: "The experiments indicate that
the velocity of the gravity is like minimum 20 thousand million times C", where
presents the theory of Tom Van Flandern.
(5) In the
works of the author:
- Proposed
for the execution of an experiment that serves to measure the velocity of
propagation of the gravitation. 1993.
- Proposed
to measure the velocity of the gravity based on the Astronomy of Position.
1995.
- The
Gravity. 1996.
Part
1. THE
LASER
1.3 Properties of the
components of the atom
1.4 Electromagnetic
Interaction
1.6 Force of the
photons on the atoms
1.7 Quantum Structure
of the orbital
Board 1. Plan of the quantum structure of the
electrons in the atom
1.8 Fine Structures
and hyperfine inside the orbital
1.10 The constant one
of the fine structure
1.13 The evolution of
the electron inside the orbital
1.14 The orbital
transition of the electrons and the types of
radiation
Board 2.
Electromagnetic type of radiation according to the type of
transition
Chapter 2. The
electromagnetic wave
2.1 What is the
electromagnetic wave?
2.3 Anatomy of the
electromagnetic wave
2.4.2 Reflection,
refraction and diffraction
2.5 The transportation
of energy
Board 3. Composition
of the electromagnetic spectrum according to type of
radiation
2.7 Properties of the
lines spectrals
2.8 Some prominent
properties of the electromagnetic types of
waves
Chapter 3. The atom
and the electromagnetism and its application to
laser
3.1 The processes of
emission – absorption
3.2 The interaction
Hamiltonian
3.3 ¿Which is the
mechanism of the interaction among the atom and the electromagnetic
field?
3.5 The
electromagnetic emission
3.6 The
electromagnetic absorption
3.7 ¿What other
effects exist in the processes of emission and
absorption?
3.8 Universal
Principle of the interaction photon – charged
particle
3.9 The equation of
wave of Schrodinger (SWE)
3.12 The production of
the laser
3.12.2 The atomic
populations invested
3.12.3 The two basic
states of a population of atoms
3.12.4 Process of
optician pumps
3.12.5 Process of
emission stimulated of coherent light
3.13 Atomic
Populations of three states
3.15 The polarization
of Rabi and that of the spin of the photon
3.16 Effects
distorting potential of the laser
3.16.4 The profile of
the Doppler in the laser
3.17 The covering of
the walls of the cavity of the laser
3.18 Transportation of
data, voice, and image
3.19 Lasers of pulse
and continuous
3.21 The action of two
laser rays
The reality
is composed by the phenomena of the substance and the field. So much the
substance as the field possesses a double behavior of wave (7) and particle.
That is to say, the substance and the field possess a double nature, in their
demonstration undulatory is continuous, and, in their quantum demonstration is
discontinuous.
The
fundamental difference is that the substance possesses atomic composition,
while, the field is composed for packets of energy. Its essential difference is
that the field is declared mainly as wave, while the substance as particle.
According to the quantum
theory the energy, stored in the field, is emitted or absorbed in discrete
quantities or packages of energy that behave in many situations as the particles
of the substance, for example, in the effect photoelectric. In turn, the
electron and other particles and subparticles components of the substance
possess properties that only can be explained in the terms of the properties of
the movement of a wave as, for example, to produce diffraction. Or in the case
of the electron that the lengths of its orbits, in around to nucleus, are
exactly lengths of wave. Besides, that the electrons itself are not declared
like points but behave spreaded on its orbit entire.
The
classical theory, of where originates the identification of the material reality
with the phenomenon of the substance, ignored that the substance possesses the
character of wave and the field that of quanta (8).
Nowadays
we have the certainty that substance - field are the result of the cooling off
that occurred in the Universe thirty-two minutes after the Big - Bang, moment in
which the atomic nucleus synthesis was produced and the rise of the substance
organized from atoms. The Universe was originated in the field; at the moment
same of the Big - Bang only existed energy (9) and during the interim in which
the temperature went minimum ten for ten high to the thirty-two degrees Kelvin
only existed field (10).
Of such
way, in the chapters 1 and 2, we will refer to the bases of the two fundamental
physical phenomena of the nature that are, also the base of the technology of
the laser:
- The
constituent structure atoms of the substance.
- The
electromagnetic wave form of the energy in which the quantum character is
declared of is.
In the
chapter 3 it will treat the interaction among the atom and the electromagnetic
wave and its application to the production of the laser, inside whose numerous
uses is the one that is the base the present technologies of velocities
superluminal.
Therefore, this part 1 is
oriented to the comprehension of the laser, technology that nevertheless to
originate since nearby half century is maintained of tip.
(7) The
waves of the substance are called waves of the matter and went discovered by
Broglie.
(8) The
theory of the physical classic and even Einstein understand the matter composed
by atoms or, to less, by particles or atomic subparticles. The author considers
the matter c composed so much by the substance as by the
field.
(9) Energy
in such degree of density that we perceived with analogous physical reality to
that of the substance in liquid state.
(10) The
author has the theory that the constant universal physics it are not in a strict
sense and that evolve in function to the changes of temperature occurred during
the genesis and the evolution that is occurring in the Universe. In this manner,
the velocity C of the photon has not had to ways the value that was measured
during the experiments carried out in the century 19. This velocity in the
instant of apparition of the electromagnetism, that is to say, when its
differentiation was produced with regarding the supergravity, should be several
times C. In this respect the physical American Steve Carlip thinks that the
constant change with the time and the space. And a group of scientists, in the
University of New South Wales in Australia, detected, in 1999, that the constant
one of the fine structure has changed in the time, ratified by astronomers in
the National Radio Astronomy, Institute Max Plank, University of Red, Institute
Space Telescope Science, Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy,
Institute Kapteyn Research, Onsala Space Observatory and Harvard Smithsonian.
Chapter
1. The
atom
1.3 Properties of the
components of the atom
1.4 Electromagnetic
Interaction
1.6 Force of the
photons on the atoms
1.7 Quantum Structure
of the orbital
Board 1. Plan of the quantum structure of the
electrons in the atom
1.8 Fine Structures
and hyperfine inside the orbital
1.10 The constant one
of the fine structure
1.13 The evolution of
the electron inside the orbital
1.14 The orbital
transition of the electrons and the types of
radiation
Board 2.
Electromagnetic type of radiation according to the type of
transition
The
atom, seen since the perspective that constitutes the natural support for the
generation of the laser, interests like not nuclear energy production mechanism,
in its processes of absorption and electromagnetic emission of radiation,
especially in the level of the fine structures and hyperfine of the atom.
Therefore, it is a matter of
studying the atom fundamentally in the level of its layers of electrons and
energy interactions, that is to say, of the step of electrons among layers, of
the interaction of the responsible, with himself same electron of the fine
structure, and of the interaction of the electron with the nucleus, responsible
of the structure hyperfine. Besides, to study the energy interaction of the atom
with its environment, of where originates the energy that absorbs and where is
going to stop the energy that emits.
The
theory that treats about the energy phenomenon is the quantum theory, which seen
applied to the physics of the atom and of the electromagnetism, conceived in its
nature dual of wave – particle and subjects to principle of uncertainty.
In this
chapter the quantum theory of the atom is presented and its energy for the
determination of the structures and processes, that intervene in the production
of the laser.
1.1 Structure of the
atom
The atom
is a composed structure by a nucleus and electrons that are transferred in
around nucleus, inside orbital (11). According to some authors, the electrons
and components of the nucleus possess movement of rotation. Additionally, the
electrons possess the movement in transit among the orbital of the atom. The
evolution of the atom is determined by its interaction with the field (12),
mainly, the electromagnetic field that is the responsible one for the different
movements that possess the electrons and can be of the movement of "rotation" of
the components of the nucleus. The ligature of the components and subcomponents
of the nucleus is proper of strong field and the process of disintegration of
the nuclei of the radioactive atoms caused by the weak
field.
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1.2 Theories on the
atom
In the elaboration of the
present theory on the atom three theories concur: the classic, that of Bohr and
the quantum (13).
The step from one to another
has been consequence of the successive experimental discoveries on the structure
and the behavior of the atom, and the electromagnetism that the theory of shift
could not explain.
The classical conception
contributed the model of the composed atom by electrons and nucleus (14), among
which exercises an electric force attraction, that if the electrons are pushed
toward the nucleus emit electromagnetic energy and that if are pushed toward the
outside absorb electromagnetic energy.
In turn, the theory on the
atom of Bohr added, for the electrons in the atoms, the states of energy
quantized according to orbital. Those constitute the roads through which the
electrons are transferred around the nucleus.
The present quantum
conception of the atom is bases on them advanced
following:
- The electrons and muons
(15) are transferred (16) respect to nucleus inside certain orbital, associates
with discrete states of energy (17).
These orbital they can be
described by means of an equation of wave, known as equation of wave of
Schrodinger (SWE) (18).
- The changes of the
electron or muon among orbital are accompanied by the absorption or emission of
packets of electromagnetic energy.
- The electromagnetic
energy, that radiates or absorbs the atom, is composed by discrete packages of
energy called photons. Therefore, the electromagnetic energy is of discrete
nature. That is to say, the electromagnetic energy changes according quanta of
energy (19).
- The electrons and the
components of the nucleus of the atom: neutrons, protons and other subparticles,
as well as the photon have properties of wave (20).
- All it components (21) of
the atom and the photon possess spin, which for some authors is the movement of
turn of a particle or of the photon oriented in a specific direction and, for
other authors, is the simple orientation of the particle in a direction of the
space. The disagreement situates in which according to the quantum theory these
particles do not possess axis, due to its behavior
undulatory.
Nevertheless, for the
explanation of its magnetic property is necessary to consider them with a
certain movement of turn, to though, not in the sense of
rotation.
- Two or more electrons or
muons cannot exist in the same state (22) of energy or
orbital.
- The interim inside which a
determined state of energy can exist and the energy of the state cannot be known
simultaneously (23).
- They can be determined the
length of wave, energy and amplitude, but not where the electron is found,
because a wave extends in the space, on all its
directions.
- By means of the equation
of Schrodinger can be calculated the amplitude of the wave of an electron in
various points of the space.
- Several expressions are
possible for the amplitude of a wave that satisfies the equation of Schrodinger.
Due to which only the probability can be determined to find an electron in a
region given of the space.
- The relativistic effects
(24) and magnetic of the electron cause the presence of a fine division of the
energy of the orbital.
- The effect of the
interaction among the magnetism of the electron and that of the nucleus produce
the presence of a hyperfine subdivision of the energy inside the fine division
of the orbital.
The description that
receives the theory of quantum, as soon as refers to that the energy is
quantize, in terms of the theory of the atom originates of Bohr and in the
referring to quanta to its discoverer Planck.
(11) As opposed to the orbits
that describe the planets in around to Sun the electrons move in clouds around
the nucleus.
(12)Five known forms of the
field exist. These are: Electromagnetic, weak, strong, gravitation and one of
recent discovery.
(13) The quantum mechanics was
developed to describe the movement of the particles and subparticles atomic
confined in micro spaces. The mechanics of
(14) The nuclei are formed by
neutrons and protons.
(15) The muons are electrons
that associates with two appear neutrinos. Its mass is 207 times that of the
electron.
(16) This movement is known in the
conception of Bohr as the orbit of the similar electron to that of a planet
around a star as the Sun. In the present theory, the movement of translation of
the electron is of form of cloud.
(17) Theory of Bohr about the
atom of hydrogen.
(18) SWE is an equation of
probability. SWE this defined in agreement to principle of uncertainty of Heisenberg,
that is to say, p ³ H/i, where p = uncertainty in moment, i = uncertainty in position, and h = constant of
Planck.
(19) A quanta is n times the
constant one of Planck. This constant one is equal to 6.62620 for 10 to the less
34 Js.
(20) Principle of
Broglie.
(21) Also, the protons and
neutrons, inside the nucleus, possess spin. And likewise, have it the quarks and
sub quarks components and subcomponents of the hadrons or heavy particles,
inside which are the proton and the neutron.
(22) Principle of exclusion of
Pauli.
(23) Principle of uncertainty
of Heisenberg.
(24) According to Sommerfeld,
such effect is that of the change of the mass of the electron with its
velocity.
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1.3 Properties of the components of the
atom
The particles and
subparticles components of the atom possess:
- Electric Load which is
declared like field electric (25).
- Moment of the dipole
magnetic (26) that is declared like magnetic field.
- Moment of the quantity of
movement of the particle or subparticle (27) that hypothetically is declared
like field of the spin.
Each field, of the previous,
interacts with each another.
The spin of the particles
and subparticles, components of the atom, is oriented according to two values:
up or down, for any spatial direction.
The photon, quanta of the
electromagnetic field, lacks electric load and lacks of moment of the dipole
magnetic. But, the photon possesses spin whose axis is to ways parallel to the
spatial direction of its movement, to though, in the sense behind or ahead.
These two values correspond to the photons of left hand and right
hand.
(25) A charges electric
creates a static electric field that is manifested, in presence another load, as
transfer for the time being among both loads, the ones that are attracted or
repel. This transfer for the time being is through virtual photons that are
exchanged among the loads, and directly cannot be detected for being its period
of decay coincident with the interim of uncertainty.
(26) With two poles, positive
and negative, separated by a right-wing tiny distance. Its behavior is that of
two infinitesimals charges electric of opposite signs united and confined inside
a micro space indivisible.
(27) All the particles and
subparticles atomic possess spin .Also; the quantum of the different existing
fields possess spin. The spin is one of the characteristics of the elements
constituents of the matter.
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1.4
Electromagnetic
Interaction
An electric load in absence
of another load (28) presents its electric field coinciding with its electric
potential field. This it is the
(28) An electric charge only
presents electric field when is in the presence of another electric
charge.
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1.5 Total Energy of the
atom
The entities, with
especially complex, atomic structure, with relation to the conformation of their
total energy, are the molecules since possess the following mechanical sources
of energy:
- Energy kinetic rotational
that results of the rotation of the molecule with respect to its own
axis.
- Energy kinetic vibrational
caused by the vibration of the nucleus with respect to its position of
equilibrium.
- Potential energy that is
the energy of the position, in the space, of its electrons inside the
orbital.
- Energy kinetic translative
which is generated for the exchange of energy due to the collisions among
molecules.
The quantitative relation,
among these types of energy of the molecules, is:
Potential energy >
vibrational > translative > rotational
The change in the rotational
energy is accompanied by a transition vibrational. Often this is the source of
spectral bands.
The collisions can influence
strongly in the rotational level, weakly in the level vibrational and scattering
in all the potential level.
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1.6 Force of the photons on the
atoms
The photons transport a
moment equal to h / l, That is to say, constant
of Planck / length of wave. This moment is manifested for the force that is
exercised for the photons on the atoms.
A photon when is absorbed by
an atom an angular moment gives it + or - (29).
During the cycles of
emission and spontaneous absorption (30) the photon, on the average in each
cycle, transfers a moment to atom equal to moment of the photon times the rat of
dissemination.
While all the photons
absorbed they spread in a same direction the photons emitted, in a spontaneous
way, are it isotropic, with a rat on the order of 100 million photons by
second.
(29) The sign depends on the
orientation, down (-) or up (+), of the spin.
(30) Also, the cycle emission
exists - absorption stimulated, by means of the action of the laser on the
atoms.
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1.7 Quantum Structure of the
orbital
The model of the quantum
mechanics describes the properties of each orbital one inside an atom, by means
of three symbols and one secondary to determine the spin of an electron, inside
a suborbital. Of such way, that the assembly, of those four symbols,
characterizes an electron and its state in an atom. These symbols, called
quantum numbers, are:
The first quantum symbol
is:
N = 1, 2, 3... This is the
main quantum number and describes the size and energy of an orbital one (31).
The orbital one n = 1 corresponds to state of lower energy of an atom. An
orbital one will have greater energy as much as greater is its value n.
The electronic transition
(32) occurs when an electron moves among orbital with values n
different.
So that an electron passes
of n = 1 to n>1 or, in general, it passes to any n final > N initial is
required that the atom absorb the energy of a photon equal to the difference of
energy among n final and n initial. In the contrary case, when an electron
passes to n = 1 or initial from n < N final the atom emits a photon with an
energy equal to the difference of energy among the orbital n initial and n
final. These relations are expressed in the following
equation:
Final energy - initial
Energy (33) = h x C / l
An atom is found in state
discharged when its electrons occupy orbital of most minimum energy. And the
atom is excited when at least one of its electrons occupies an orbital one since
which can decay to another orbital one of smaller
energy.
The second quantum symbol
is:
L = s, p, d, f... This
called number Azimuthal or subsidiary describes the form of each one of the
suborbital belonging to an orbital one. That is to say, an orbital one can have
more than one cloud of probability, where can be found the electrons. All those
clouds have nearby the level of energy of the minimum orbital one, being for
s.
The third quantum symbol is:
ML = -l, -l+1 ... l this is
the magnetic quantum number that defines the orientation of a suborbital in the
space. Ex pulse changes in the orientation in the space of the clouds of
probability, where can be found the electrons. This is a whole number.
The fourth quantum symbol
is:
Ms = up (+½), under (-½)
this value determines the up the orientation or below the axis of the spin of
the electron, inside a cloud of probability, in a specific direction of the
continuous spatial one 3-D (34).
The quantum
number n determines the values of the number l, since it can take n different
values, numbered since 0 to n-1, according to the conventions l=0=s, l=1=p,
l=2=d, etc. Likewise l determines the values that can take mL, the ones that are entire, with increments ±1, among –l
and + l, that is to say, 2l+1 values.
L defines the form of a
cloud, together with n, that defines its size and mL
that defines its orientation.
Two electrons cannot have,
in the same atom, the four numbers quantum equals, proper of principle of
exclusion of Pauli.
The fact that electron can
exist multiple orbital with the same number n causes those levels of equal
energy they exist. These levels are known as layers and are represented for the
letters K, L, M,
The layers K, L, M cover the
first 18 elements of the periodic board.
In the board 1 a plan of the
structure of the orbital is presented.
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Board
1.
Plan of the quantum structure of the electrons in the
atom
Level Orbital possible most
maximum Number of electrons
N
l
mL
ms (35) In the suborbital In the orbital
|
K |
1 |
s |
0 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
|
L |
2 |
s |
0 |
2 |
2 |
8 |
|
|
2 |
p |
-1,0,1 |
2 |
6 |
|
|
M |
3 |
s |
0 |
2 |
2 |
18 |
|
|
3 |
p |
-1,0,1 |
2 |
6 |
|
|
|
3 |
d |
-2,-1,0,1,2 |
2 |
10 |
|
|
N |
4 |
s |
0 |
2 |
2 |
32 |
|
|
4 |
p |
-1,0,1 |
2 |
6 |
|
|
|
4 |
d |
-2,-1,0,1,2 |
2 |
10 |
|
|
|
4 |
and |
-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3 |
2 |
14 |
|
The suborbital s, p, d, f,
etc. inside each orbital one have very next energies, due to which is considered
them of equal energy, nevertheless, the energy grows among s and f.
For the value of l=0=s a
cloud exists only, for l=1=p 3 forms of clouds exist, for l=2=d 5 forms of
clouds exist, for l=3=e 7 forms of clouds exist, etc. That is to say, for l
exists 2l+1 forms of clouds. A cloud can contain to 2
electrons, one with the axis of its spin up and the other downward.
The total number of
electrons that can have an orbital one is 2(2l+1)
An orbital one, l, can
present different alternatives of energy, for example, in the isotope 87, of the
atom of Rubidium, the division of the orbital one p in the sub level of energy
j=1/2 and j=3/2 pertaining to subdivisions of very small energy of the fine
structure of the orbital. A subsequent division of the energy of the fine
structure of the orbital one is produced by its subdivision in the values F,
this subdivision corresponds to the structure hyperfine of an orbital one.
The divisions of the fine
structures and hyperfine do not add electrons storage capacity inside an orbital
one, that continues determined by the four quantum number n, l, mL and ms. But, on the other hand enables a greater energy
states number for the electrons that occupy the suborbital.
(31) For the atom of hydrogen
the energy of a level with quantum number n equal to –R hC / n. R is the constant one of Ryberg, equal to 1.092 x 10
cm.
(32) Also, transition of the
electron exists when passes among the sub levels of energy of a same orbital
one, to though, are transition with very small difference of
energy.
(33) In the atom of hydrogen,
the difference of energy among n = 2 and n = 1 is of 1 electro
volt.
(34) 3-D defines three
dimensions, that are represented for x, and, z.
(35) Two orientations exist:
up (high energy) and down (low energy) of the spin of the
electron.
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1.8 Fine Structures and hyperfine inside the
orbital
In the atom various angular
moments exist (36) due to the movements of their particles components. Such
angular moments are for the electron, as much that of their orbital movement as
that of their spin. And, in the atoms magnetically actives exist the angular
moment of the nucleus. These angular moments generate magnetic moments that
interact with each another.
In the nucleus, the protons
and neutrons have each one angular moment due to their respective one spin. The
moments, of these particles, generate the total moment of the nucleus, called
I.
If the number of protons is
pair and that of neutrons is pair then the angular moment total of the nucleus
is zero. But, if the number of the protons is unequal or is it that of the
neutrons then the nucleus has angular moment and the atom is active
magnetically.
The angular moment total of
the nucleus, of these active atoms (37), is connected in the magnetic property
of the nucleus, known as the magnetic moment of the
nucleus.
The spin of each proton or
neutron of the nucleus, acts like a magnetic bar dipolar(38), which produces a
tiny magnetic field (39), That combines with the magnetic field of
each another and form the magnetic field total of the
nucleus.
The reason among the
magnetic, angular, and total moments, of the nucleus is the radio giromagnetic
of the nucleus that is specific of each magnetically active
nucleus.
The electrons (40) have
orbital angular moment by its translation around the nucleus and, additionally,
angular moment of its spin. These angular moments are connected in the magnetic
properties (41) of the electron.
The total magnetic moments
of the nucleus and of the electron is connected at the moment magnetic total of
the atom.
In general, the magnetic
moments of the particles components of the atom are due to the movements, of
translation or turn, of electric charges (42). The difference among the
intensity of these magnetic moments is that of its different radio giromagnetic
(43).
(36) An angular moment is the
vector radio times velocity times mass that has
magnitude and direction.
(37) The atomic nuclei are
assets magnetically when have angular moment total. The nuclei of the hydrogen,
coal, fluorine, match, and sodium are active
magnetically.
(38) With South and North
poles.
(39) Also, it has magnitude
and direction oriented equal as the angular moment.
(40) Also, the muons for the
atoms muonics.
(41) The electron and muons
behave as tiny magnetic dipolar bars the same as the protons and neutrons, due
to its spin. Besides, for the electrons and muons the effect of its orbital
movement exists.
(42) Negative of the electron
and muon. Positive of the proton. The neutron, that is
a proton connected to an electron, also, presents electric property when it
rotates.
(43) According to the
electrodynamics quantum the giromagnetic radios, of the magnetic moments, are: 1
for the orbital one and 2.0023 for the spin of the
electron.
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1.9
Fine
Structure
The magnetic interaction of
the with himself same electron, that is to say, among the orbital magnetic
moments and of the spin of the electron, gives rise to the fine division of the
energy of the suborbital of the atoms. This fine division is observable by means
of spectroscopy of highest resolution.
Such interaction gives rise
to a magnetic moment total of the electron, in each one of the suborbital that
is the combination vectorial, L-S joint call, of the magnetic moments (44)
orbital and of the spin of the electron (45). The magnetic moment total of the
electron, inside a suborbital, is called J.
The difference of energy
among two adjacent levels of energy of the fine structure is, approximately, a
millionth splits of the difference of energy that exists among two quantum
numbers n adjacent.
All the atoms possess the
fine structure that, according to the quantum structure of the atom, the quantum
number is represented by means of j, used to define each sublevel of energy,
inside a suborbital.
This number j corresponds to
total magnetic moment J of the electron, and is obtained adding the quantum
number l, of the respective one suborbital, and ms of the spin of the electron
that intervenes in the generation of the magnetic moment J in question.
For example, the effect of
the fine structure in the isotope 87, of the atom of Rubidium (46), divides its
quantum number 5, suborbital p, in the sub levels of energy: 5 p 1/2 and 5 p
3/2.
If an atom does not present
structure hyperfine the third quantum number mL,
defines, inside each sublevel of energy, of the fine structure, its orientation
in the 3-D.
(44) The orbital moments and
of the spin are anti parallels, quantized and, to one, is able at the same time
to be determined its magnitude and its component z, of the
3-D.
(45) The magnetic moment is
equal to inverse additive of the angular moment times the radio giromagnetic
times the magneton of Bohr divided among the constant one of Planck. The
magneton is the unit to measure the intensity of the magnetic field equal to
9,274 for 10 to the less 24 amperemetres.
(46) The atom of Rubidium
presents the isotopes 85 and 87.
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1.10 The constant one of the
fine
structure
The inherent force of the
associated electromagnetic force of the electron is characterized by the value
of a parameter called the constant one of the fine structure of the atom. Which
it is denoted for a and equal
to:
Charge of the high electron
to the 2 / h x C
The value of
a it determines the tight
thing that are the atoms, inside a substantial structure, and the
electromagnetic lengths of waves that are able the atoms to emit.
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1.11 Structure
hyperfine
The interaction, among the
magnetic moments total of the electron and of the nucleus, produces the division
superfine of the fine structure that is defined by means of the quantum symbol F, which
numbered the sub levels of energy, inside each suborbital. The number of sub
levels of energy determines them the magnetic moment total of the suborbital.
Each sublevel at the same time can present a specific number of orientations
that is defined by the third quantum number mL. When
the atom has only fine structure mL numbered the
different orientation of each one of the suborbital belonging to this
structure.
The magnetic field total of
the electron is connected to total moment of the nucleus and orients the spin of
the nucleus, in a specific direction in the 3-D. This joint is called J-I and
the angular moment resultant total F, which is quantized and can take values J +
I, J+I-1 ... ,, J-I.
Thus can exist (2J+1) or
(2I+1) hyperfine levels of energy, depending if J>I or
I>J.
The difference of energy
among two adjacent levels of the structure hyperfine is, approximately, a
thousandth (47) part of the difference of energy that exists among consecutive
levels of the fine structure.
Only the atoms, with
magnetic active nuclei, possess the structure hyperfine that, according to the
quantum structure of the atom, is represented for the sub levels of energy F,
that specify the divisions of the quantum number of the magnetic moment, mL, inside the structure hyperfine. The number of sub levels
of energy of the structure hyperfine, is defined by F, and is equal to the sum
of j + I. The value of I depends on the spin of the nucleus and is a multiple of
½, among 0 and 15/2. For example, in the isotope 87 of the atom of Rubidium in
the orbital
5 p3/2, presents a division hyperfine in the sub levels of energy
F=0,1,2,3. Each sublevel of energy F, at the same time, presents mL orientation in the space.
(47) The
magnetic moment of the nucleus it differentiates of the magnetic moment of the
electron in the radio giromagnetic and in the magneton, call nuclear magneton.
The reason among the Bohr magneton and the nuclear magneton is 1/1836, that is
to say, the reason among the masses of the electron and the
proton.
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1.12 Effect
Zeeman
When the atoms are found
under the effect of a weak external magnetic field the division of the energy of
the fine structure is done stronger, equal happens with the subdivision of the
energy of the structure hyperfine. This effect is known like Zeeman, and is used
in diverse atomic experiments of physics, to stimulate these structures and thus
to manipulate the quantum states of the atoms.
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1.13 The evolution of the electron inside the
orbital
The energy Hamiltonian of an electron inside an orbital
one, defined by the quantum number n, is to most the same one, but, with light
variations in its potential energies and kinetic as a result of its traffic
inside the own divisions of the orbital one in the fine structures, with
differences of barely millionth split, and hyperfine, with differences of only
thousand millionth split.
The step of the electron
among two levels of energy produces electromagnetic radiation, provided that the
even electron of a level of greater potential energy to another smaller one.
Also, the step of the electron inside the sub levels of energy of the fine
structure or of the hyperfine structure.
If, on the contrary, the
electron goes of a level or sublevel of smaller potential energy to another
greater one should take the energy of a photon incident, inside the rank of the
difference of energy among the final and initial potentials or for the
transition, inside the structure hyperfine, above the rank of the difference of
energy among the final and initial potentials of the sub levels of that
structure.
Nevertheless, that the
electron can do step among any of the possible combinations of traffic, inside
the different levels and sub levels of energy, only certain transition produce
effects detectable. For example, in the isotope 87, of the atom of Rubidium the
transition hyperfine 5 p3/2 3 to 5 s1/2 2 produces electromagnetic radiation
detectable. Not thus, the transition 5 p3/2
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1.14 The orbital transition of the electrons
and the types of
radiation
The transition of the
electrons can occur among states of orbital of different quantum number or of
the interior of a same orbital one.
These transition can be
carried out in the sense in which an electron passes from a state inside an
orbital more nearby of the nucleus to another more distant one or in the
contrary sense in which an electron passes from a state inside an orbital more
distant of the nucleus to another more nearby one. In every case, the difference
of energy among the state of origin of the electron and the final state, it
which passes is the factor that determines, in the process of emission, the
length of the wave that is radiated. And in a process of absorption the energy
of the photon incident on the atom, that is consumed.
Of such way, what occurs
essentially in an electronic transition is the electromagnetic exchange of
energy (48) in potential.
The potential energy
diminishes in the process of emission or enlarges during the process of
absorption.
The transition of the
electron among different orbital can be among the most
common:
- Lyman, since any orbital
one with n>1 to orbital n = 1
- Balmer, since any orbital
one with n>2 to orbital n = 2
- Paschen, since any orbital
one with n>3 to orbital n = 3
All the transition of the
electron that occurs in the process of emission generates waves of the same
nature of different electromagnetic types of waves that differ only in length
and frequency. The length waves change among hundreds of meters, of the waves of
radio, to next to the length of the nucleus of an atom, of the X-rays.
The possible number of
layers and orbital for a specific type of atom is independent of the number of
its electrons. Thus the atom of hydrogen, with its only electron, can produce or
to absorb electromagnetic radiation of different types.
In the Board 2 a guide about
the existing association among the electronic transition is presented and the
electromagnetic radiation.
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Board
2. Electromagnetic type of radiation according to
the type of
transition
Transition
Type radiation type
electromagnetic
electronics
|
Ultraviolet |
Step of an external electron to an
orbital internal one |
|
Light |
Step of an electron inside the orbital
external or inside the orbital internal
|
|
Near the infrared
one |
Step of an electron inside the orbital
most external or molecular Vibration |
|
Infrared |
Molecular
vibrations |
|
Microwave |
Step of an electron inside the fine
structure* |
|
Waves of
radio |
Step of an electron inside the structure
hyperfine* |
* For levels of energy of
the atom affected by a weak external magnetic
field.
(48) The author
observes that in the process of emission the decrease of the potential energy of
the electron directly reappears like energy kinetic of the electromagnetism,
well be considered like quantum entity (photon), or as entity undulatory (wave).
The electron like photon possesses energy kinetic due to the velocity of its
curvilinear movement. The electron like wave possesses energy kinetic due to its
frequency or velocity of the oscillation. Of there that tell that the energy of
the photon is that of its movement and that is directly proportional to the
frequency of the electromagnetic wave. In these terms, the electromagnetic
energy is essentially ¡energy kinetic¡.
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1.15 Transition D1 and
D2
They are transition
hyperfine that give rise to radio waves emission. Thus the transition D1
corresponds to a difference of energy that aforesaid in frequency corresponds to
lengths of wave on the order of the 794.7 nanometers (49) and, in turn, the
transition D2 to the wave length frequencies by the side of the 780.7
nanometers.
For the isotope 87, of the
atom of Rubidium, the transition D1 produces radiation detectable when occurs
for the step of an electron among, for example:
Of 5 p1/2 1 to 5 s1/2
1
Of 5 p1/2
Of 5 p1/2 1 to 5 s1/2
2
Of 5 p1/2
For the isotope 87, of the
atom of Rubidium, the transition D2 produces radiation detectable when occurs
for the step of an electron among, for example:
Of 5 p3/2 0 to 5 s1/2
1
Of 5 p3/2 1 to 5 s1/2
1
Of 5 p3/2 1 to 5 s1/2
2
As it can be observed the
previous states, that can generate the transition D1 or D2, represent so next
energies that the subdivision hyperfine does not play here no role, as soon as
produce a significant difference of energy in the wave radiated. But, said
subdivision hyperfine is essential so that processes of absorption - emission
can occur not resonant and they can be manipulated the electrons placing them,
inside a determined quantum state of an atomic population, base of the technique
of optic pump, that is carries out
by means of applications of the laser.
(49) Nano is 1 for 10 to the
less 9 that is to say, a thousandth of a millionth. On the other hand, is keep
in mind that the difference of energy is equal to hC /
l , Therefore, not to interpret
the frequencies D1,D2 as the lengths of the wave radiated when such transition
occur.
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Chapter
2. The
electromagnetic
wave
Chapter 2. The
electromagnetic wave
2.1 What is
the electromagnetic wave?
2.3 Anatomy of
the electromagnetic wave
2.4.2
Reflection, refraction and diffraction
2.5 The
transportation of energy
Board 3.
Composition of the electromagnetic spectrum according to type of
radiation
2.7 Properties
of the lines spectrals
2.8 Some
prominent properties of the electromagnetic types of
waves
Though with it is the atom
the base of the production of the laser and this the base for the achievement of
velocities superluminales, is also certain that, is the electromagnetic wave the
one that is employed to produce them, accelerating its velocity, by means of
effects created with the laser, above the speed that has in the
vacuum.
The electromagnetic wave is
together with the gravity, to though, a great deal best-known, that this two
phenomena of the field whose nature the science has not achieved fully to
establish. The great difficulty that covers the full comprehension of the
electromagnetic wave situates in if is or not the vibration of a middle. This
last idea has been reintroduced with the quantum theory that presents the vacuum
full of free fields (50), being the vacuum the middle in which the
electromagnetic wave is originated and through which spreads.
Here the electromagnetic
phenomenon is studied not know that great problem. The hypothesis is assumed
that the electromagnetic wave is the vibration of the connection among the
magnetic and electric fields, induced by the vibration of an electric charge in
the vacuum. Such fields the charge with its movement creates them of translation
and if, additionally, the charge oscillates induces the generation of the
electromagnetic wave in which spreads in all the directions, in the space in
which the electromagnetic field is expanded, being spread in the vacuum, as soon
as the electromagnetism full the vacuum, to the limits of the continuous 4-D
(51) in which comes to reach depending on its intensity, that is to say, Of flux
of energy by a point of the space in a unit of time.
The present superluminal
technologies, take advantage of the behavior of the relative electromagnetic
wave to effect of the refraction,
that consists of the changes of frequency and of the vector of the velocity of
the wave when passes from a middle to another.
Of such way, in this
chapter, since the quantum theory, develops the theme relating to the
electromagnetic wave, orienting it to its application in the achievement of
superluminal velocities.
(50) And the fields
constituted for quanta of energy. With these bases the author formulates
electromagnetic wave considering it like the disruption of a structure of
energy, that would be the own electromagnetic energy, compound by
photons.
(51) Continuous x, and, z,
t
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2.1 What is the
electromagnetic
wave?
A wave (52), in general, is
the propagation of a disruption, caused by an external agent, in the structure
of an entity, proper to change in
the natural state of movement of its elements constituents, beyond the pattern
of movement, that is own of the structure of the
entity.
The propagation of the
disruption occurs through the entity and is able that also of its environment.
Therefore, the waves as phenomenon of propagation of the structural disruption
of middle transport energy (53). But, the present theory on the electromagnetic
waves considers them empty, that is to say, as they would not be exactly the
structural disruption of a middle they would not transport energy, another thing
is if the vacuum, as it maintains the quantum theory this full one of fields,
then they should transport energy. In every case, the demonstrations of the
electromagnetic waves are analogous to those of the waves that transport energy.
In the composed entities by
atomic structures (54) the waves, mechanical calls waves, are generated for the
alteration of the movement of their particles, according to the movement of
these, inside the own pattern of their structure.
Based on the theory kinetic
of the matter, the particles components of the structure of the substantial
entities are animated of constant movement, and its velocity is directly
proportional to the temperature of the entity, to though, in every instant
conserving the company of the entity, doing that appears to ways equal.
Nevertheless, in the vibrations can occur anomalies (55), horizontal, and
vertical or in any direction of their molecules, atoms or ions constituents,
that is transmitted in all the directions of the entity and even can come they
to surpass it, being transmitted to environment (56). Such anomalous vibrations
originate of external agents that cause them. For example, a mobile traveling
through an entity, thus the movement of the airplanes through the air, of the
ships in the sea (57), a sunk objects in the water. Or any agent that be capable
to cause an alteration of the structure of an entity, as for example, the
vibrant vocal cords or those of a musical instrument; a sphere pulsate and even
by the molecules, atoms or ions of any capable type of agent to cause
vibrations, inside a different pattern of the structure of the entity that
suffers the disruption. Or by any important source of energy actuated (58) on
the structure of an entity.
In the case of the
electromagnetic waves (59) are created for the vibration of an electric charge
in the vacuum and spread in the vacuum (60), as opposed to the mechanical waves
(61) that as the sound require of a substantial
middle.
The vibration of an electric
charge creates a wave (62) that consists of the vibration of the magnetic and
electric components of the existing field around the electric charges or
magnetic bodies, in state of movement.
Every electric charge, in
the presence of another charge, is connected to a static electric field and
every magnetic body in the presence of another magnetic body is connection to a
static magnetic field.
The static magnetic and
electric fields extend in all the directions of the continuous one 3-D, being
wrapped around their generating source, and diminishing their intensity in
inverse proportion with their distance regarding the
source.
So much the electricity as
the magnetism can exist independently one of another, to ways in the static form
of states.
When the electric charge is
in movement, additionally creates in its environment a magnetic field and the
magnetic body in movement also create in its environment an electric field (63).
Of such way, the electric charges and the magnetic bodies in movement are to
ways surrounded by the magnetic and electric fields, that to ways are together
and vibrant if the electric charge vibrate (64), inside their orthogonal joint
(65).
Therefore, an
electromagnetic wave is the oscillation of an electromagnetic field (66). And,
to though, the electromagnetic wave is expanded in all the directions of the
continuous one 3-D, to ways the direction of the electromagnetic wave is
perpendicular to orthogonal joint
of the magnetic and electric fields in that
direction.
The present image that has
of the electromagnetic wave is that of that the vibration of the electric charge
puts in oscillation the connection of the magnetic and electric fields, to the
way as causes oscillates a cord, with its extremes closed. This electromagnetic
oscillation occurs in the same plan in which moves the wave. On the other hand,
the direction of the electromagnetic wave is the same one of the energy (67)
that transports.
In the electromagnetic field
should be distinguished:
- The lines of force which
seem produced on a cord closed in an extreme and open in another extreme, being
moved to long rays and being extended cross. These lines have the form of
loops.
- Tangent in each point of
the lines of force is the lines that represent the direction and intensity of
the lines of force.
- The sinusoidal wave,
similar to the lines of force, progressively is weakened with their distance
regarding the source.
(52) The current definition of
a wave is that is a disruption repeatedly and periodic that moves through a
middle since a locating to another. In extensive sense is the propagation of a
disruption.
(53) The energy, according to
its classical definition, is the capacity that possesses an entity to carry out
a work, understanding for this the application of a force inside a journey. This
notion induced to understand the energy as not material
phenomenon.
(54) That is to say, composed
by molecules, atoms, ions and, still subparticles. These entities belong to
material phenomenon known as substance, that appeared during the process of the
generation of the Universe when this I am chilled.
(55) When the vibrations are
maximums can come they to break the structure, breaking to own
entity.
(56) A wave caused in a
metallic bar placed in the vacuum does not pass to environment. The waves of the
sea are reflected to most totally in the cliffs.
(57) The aquatic waves,
generated by the propellers of the ships, are especially
complex.
(58) The energy constitutes
the original phenomenon of the material existence. In the first instants of the
Big-bang, to extraordinarily high temperatures only energy
existed.
(59) Waves that are not
vibration of the substance but according to the author would be vibration of the
energy.
(60) In the quantum theory the
vacuum this full one by energy and the energy possesses quantum
composition.
(61) The mechanical waves only
spread through the substance, that is to say, of entities structured
atomic.
(62) An electromagnetic wave
is an electric field in conjunction with a magnetic field, oscillating with the
same frequency.
(63) The electric charge in
movement possesses the behavior dual electric-magnetic. In turn, the magnetic
body in movement acquires the behavior dual
electric-magnetic.
(64) Previously it had said
himself that the simple movement of an electric charge or of a magnetic body
produced the vibration of the connection of the magnetic and electric fields.
(65) The orthogonal joint of
the magnetic and electric fields consists of that one and another are to ways
perpendiculars. This joint occurs in all the directions in which said fields
extend.
(66) An electromagnetic wave,
as opposed to the mechanical waves, in the present electromagnetic theory is
empty waves, that is to say, that do not transport energy. Nevertheless, the
author considers, with the reintroduction of the "ether", in the quantum theory,
that the electromagnetic wave can be the propagation of the disruption of a
structure of the electromagnetic energy. Also, the author has presented that the
quanta of energy of the electromagnetic fields and gravitation move with a
directly proportional velocity to the temperature as occurs with the particles.
Of such way, velocities exist superluminales, in the gravity and maximum in the
supergravity, since originate of a great deal more high temperatures to that
where he was originated the electromagnetism. Currently develops the theory
holistic of the matter.
(67) The author considers as
an important characteristic of the waves of the electromagnetic field, also, of
the waves of the gravity field that of that can be disruptions of the
electromagnetic and gravity energy that transport energy. But the waves of the
substance are substantial disruptions that transport energy. The difference
among the substance and the field, in the electromagnetic and gravity forms, is
that the particles possess intrinsic mass while the quanta of the energy not. In
the gravity this natural condition of the energy permits the superluminal
velocity of the graviton (Contribution of the doctor Carlos Lemoine to the
Theory Holistic of the matter of the Author).
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2.2
Polarization
The photons in traffic when
interact with the atoms present one of the two values (68) of its spin. The
photons, constituents of a ray of light, have polarized its spin, when present
tendency with respect to one of those two values of the
spin.
In turn, the polarization of
the photon is similar to the particles. The electric field and the magnetic
field oscillate cross, in the normal plan to the direction of the movement of
the photon and perpendicularly to each another. This oscillation can rotate to
the way of a mill of wind. That is to say, the oscillation can be expanded in
all the directions due to the innumerable plans that exist when the electric
field rotates around their axis. Then, a wave can oscillate in a plan up- down,
left - right or in any angle. But, to ways the oscillation, regarding a specific
direction, concentrates on the direction of the movement of the
photon.
For which it is said that
the photon is polarized according to a specific direction of the electric field
(69).
The white light is a mixture
of waves that oscillate in all the possible angles. Therefore, an ordinary ray
of light mixes photons with all the different possible polarizations joined. But
certain substances, as the crystal of calcium or a leaf of Polaroid, only permit
the step of the photons whose electric field oscillates according to a specific
direction. Of course, when the light crosses one of these substances is
polarized, because all the photons have its electric field aligned, according to
the only direction that the substance polarizing permits. The polarization can
be lineal, horizontal, vertical, to circulate, elliptic and
aleatory.
Due to that the ray,
incident on the substance polarizing, presents polarizations distributed
uniformly on all the directions, only a small portion of the ray achieves cross
it (70).
It should be distinguished
among the polarization of the photon and that of its spin that, to though,
intimately related are not the same thing. While, that the axis of the spin is
to ways parallel to the direction of the movement of the photon, the direction
of the axis of the polarization of the wave of light is to ways perpendicular to
the direction of trip of the wave.
(68) Forward or toward behind
parallel to the direction of the photon.
(69) The photon, as
electromagnetic wave, presents the vector of the electric field oriented in all
the directions. Nevertheless, in the case of the light polarized the vector of
the electric field is oscillating in only a direction. Also, is able that the
vector of the field rotates around the axis of propagation of the light.
Depending on the sense in which the rotation occurs the light can be polarized
circulate to the right or to the left.
(70)Nevertheless, the leaf
Polaroid splits the incident light ray in two as if was previously polarized
only in two directions, perpendiculars among itself, phenomenon still without
explanation.
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2.3 Anatomy of the
electromagnetic
wave
The electromagnetic wave is
a cross type of wave (71), due to that its direction is perpendicular to that of
the electromagnetic field. By that reason the electromagnetic wave presents
sinusoidal undulations, that is to say, with crests and
valleys.
If we represent the
continuous one 3-D, in a system of coordinates Cartesian x, and, z will have in
the plane xy will be the electric field, in the plane
xz will be the magnetic field, the electromagnetic
wave in the plane xy, and coinciding with the axis x
the direction of the wave. Traditionally in the wave only the electric component
is represented due to that the magnetic component essentially is the same thing
that the electric field.
Due to that the plan of the
electromagnetic wave coincides with that of the direction of its movement lacks
the height of some cross types of waves as happens with the mechanical waves in
the sea.
In exchange for height
possesses amplitude, which decreases lineally in function (72) of the measured
distance since the source.
The amplitude (73) is the
distance among the axis of joint of the magnetic and electric fields and the
maximum or most minimum displacement respect to axis that reaches during its
vibration.
The length of the
electromagnetic wave is the length of one of its complete cycles, generally
defined, as the length among two crests or two valleys consecutives
(74).
(71) Another type of waves is
the longitudinal as is the case of the waves of the sea, where the direction of
the oscillation is the same direction of the wave.
(72) This is valid for
considerable totals of light, not thus for few photons.
(73) In the waves of the
substance the amplitude is the distance among the position of rest, or
equilibrium, and the most maximum displacement, that come the particles to
reach.
(74) In the waves of the
substance the length of the wave, also, is the distance among two consecutive
cycles. In the longitudinal waves the distance of a comprehension to the next
one. And in the cross waves the distance among a crest and the next
one.
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2.4 Behavior of the
waves
The electromagnetic waves,
as in general every wave, present various relative types of behaviors of
movement that can have the source that produces them and to its propagation
beyond the entity where are originated.
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2.4.1 The effect
Doppler
When the vibrant electric
charge is found in rest reaches to all the observers with the same frequency,
with that is produced in its origin. But, the electric charge is able that
additionally to vibrate move with relation to the direction of the wave, well in
the same sense or in against.
This it produces for an
observer, considered in repose (75), the called effect Doppler; nevertheless,
that the source maintains the frequency of emission of the wave, the observer
registers it greater, when the issuing source travels to its encounter, and
smaller, when the issuing source moves away of the observer.
The apparent change of the
frequency of the wave is consequence of the change in the distance among the
source that originates the wave and the observer that registers
it.
According to the relative
position of the observer with respect to the electric charge is able that the
real number of cycles be altered and arrive it a greater number of cycles by
second if a net movement of approach exists or, a number less than cycles by
second, if on the other hand move away.
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2.4.2 Reflection, refraction and
diffraction
Due to that the waves are
the propagation of the disruption of the structure of an entity, in the wave
various changes in the exact limit of its step to a structure with a different
density are produced, for example, to that of the
environment.
When the wave passes to a
middle of different density (76) the following can be produced effects (77), all
associates with the curvature of the path of the
wave:
- Refraction, that is the
change in the direction of the wave, to ways accompanied by the change of length
and velocity of the wave. The refraction is the cause that the prisms can
separate an incident light ray in its wave lengths constituents.
- Reflection (78), which is
the convergence of the waves in a focal point to collide against the barrier,
that exists in the limit coincident with the change of density and to be
returned inside the first middle of propagation. During the reflection of the
waves the interference phenomenon of the same length is produced, according to
the algebraic sum of its patterns.
If the waves, original and
reflected, are found in phase, that is to say, its crests coincide, the waves
are reinforced. But, if they are 180 degrees out of phase, the crests coincide
with the valleys of the other, and the waves are annulled.
- Diffraction, that is the
curvamiento of the wave on account of flanking obstacles and cracks; the total
of the diffraction is directly proportional to the length of the
wave.
The curvature of the light
can come to be so extreme that is the cause of the extreme illusions, such as
that of the not concealment of the Sun at the moment limit in which should occur
for a specific place, or that the Sun be seen like columns of
fire.
(75) Due to the relative
nature of the movement will to ways be able to take to observer in rest,
referring the state of the generating source of the wave to system of reference
of the observer.
(76) The effects suffered by
the electromagnetic wave, when changes the density of the middle in which
spreads, have been restricted to its interaction with the molecular, atomic
structures or ionized. The author and the physical American Tom Van Flandern
consider that such effects by change of density, also, they occur when it is
passed to a subordinate middle to a field of gravity of an extraordinarily
massive source as the Sun. This it would be the true cause of the effect
Einstein of curvamiento of the light when light passes very near the
Sun.
(77) These effects are
observables for waves in 3-D, as the electromagnetic, or in 2-D, as the waves in
the water.
(78) The effects of reflection
and refraction, is able that they occur when the electromagnetic wave it passes
very near a source of intense gravity. (Hypothesis of the
author).
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2.5 The transportation of
energy
The wave is the physical
phenomenon of transportation of energy through the continuous 3-D (79), without
transportation of the substance or of the energy (80) whose vibration produces
the wave.
The wave transfers the
energy since its generating source to the most maximum limit that manages to
reach. In its translation the energy loses intensity being
weakened.
The quantity of energy
transported by the wave is directly proportional to square of the amplitude of
the wave. Of such way, a low wave of amplitude transports low energy and a high
wave of amplitude transports high energy.
The electromagnetic waves
transport the energy in called packages of energy photons and its energy is
directly proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic wave. That is to
say, to number of the vibrations (81) that occurs for
second.
(79) The continuous one 3-D is
formed by the entity and its environment (Theory Holistic of the matter of the
author).
(80) In the case of the
electromagnetic wave, the wave in itself same is equal, electromagnetic energy
the energy that transports.
(81) The vibration of an
electromagnetic wave produces the oscillation of the wave.
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2.6
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
All kinds of atoms, ion
(82), or molecule (83) possess an electromagnetic unique spectrum
(84).
The spectrum of a great
number of elements is established (85)
experimentally.
The spectrum (86) is the
consequence of the joint individual of photons of different energies (87) that a
type of atom, ion or molecule can emit or absorber (88). Thus, the spectrum of
an ion and molecule is different to spectrum of the atom discharged, pertinent
to same element, for example to hydrogen.
Three types of spectrum
exist:
- Those of lines sharp with
a determined wide.
- Those of series of lines
you join called bands.
- The fringes that extend on
a wide rank of continuous called lengths of waves.
The lines of the own
spectrum of processes of absorption are black and correspond to color lines
absent, as a result of certain lengths of wave, of the electromagnetic spectrum,
that have been absorbed for the atoms of the masses of gases, that the
electromagnetic waves, originating from the space, they crossed during their
trip to the Land. In the meantime, the lines of the spectrum of the processes of
emission are colored.
The energy of the waves
absorbed or emitted is exactly equal (89) to the difference of energy among two
orbital of electrons, in the atoms that absorbed or
emitted.
The spectrum permits to
determine the atoms of the elements that been present inside the body
transmitter and/or absorbent, if the atoms are ionized or if atoms form
molecules (90). Also, spectrum permits to determine if atoms are moving and in
which direction do it. This is known by the effect
Doppler.
Besides, the quantity of the
atoms can be established that been present and the temperature of the bodies
that form. The quantity is established for the depth and the temperature by the
wide one of the lines of the spectrum.
The photons according to its
energy are classified for type of radiation varying among the rays gamma that
are the rays of greater energy, and the waves of radio, that are those of
smaller energy (91).
The complete composition of
the atomic spectrum according to the types of radiation is presented in the
Board 3.
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Board
3. Composition of the electromagnetic spectrum
according to type of
radiation
Wave Length
Rank frequency
Rank radiation type
|
Rays
gamma |
10 to the 24 - 10 to the
20 |
More less than 1 picometre |
|
X-rays |
10 to the 20 - 10 to the
17 |
1 nanometer - 1 picometre |
|
Ultraviolet |
10 to the 17 - 10 to the
15 |
400 nanometer - <1
nanometer |
|
Light |
40 to the 14 - 75 to the
14 |
750 micrometer - <400
nanometer |
|
Nearby
infrared |
10 to the 14 - 40 to the
14 |
2.5 micrometer - <750
nanometer |
|
Infrared |
10 to the 13 - 10 to the
14 |
25 micrometer - <2.5
micrometer |
|
Microwaves |
30 to the 11 - 10 to the
13 |
1 millimeter - <25
micrometer |
|
Radio |
< 10 to the
13 |
Greater that 1
millimeter |
The gamma rays are produced
by the nuclear disintegration or the collision among elementary particles that
travel to large velocities.
The X-rays by the
deceleration of electrons, that travels to large
velocities.
(82) An ion is an atom with
one or more electrons added or lost with respect to its discharge state that is
when the number of its electrons is equivalent to number of the protons. When
the atom presents an excess of electrons the ion is negative and if lack it the
ion is positive.
(83) They are two or more
united atoms electromagnetic that form a unit.
(84) Thus the spectrum
obtained of the atom of hydrogen is different from the spectrum of all the other
existing atoms in the nature, such as the helium, oxygen etc. Of such way,
acquaintance a spectrum is known the type about atom that it
originated.
(85) The spectrum is a
composed band of lines, of a specific thickness, known as lines of Fraunhofer
who was its discoverer. The thickness of a line is called profile
(profile).
(86) The spectrum can be of
lines, bands or continuous. The continuous spectrum contains all the colors;
such is the case of the white light.
(87) The energy of a photon is
proportional directly to the frequency and inversely to the length of its
associated wave.
(88) In the spectrum the
absorption corresponds to dark lines and the emission to lines of color. Both
types of lines possess a specific profile.
(89) There are some authors
that define it proportional.
(90) The molecules only can
exist in cold places as in the Land. With the elevation of the temperature the
molecules break in free atoms and these are ionized.
(91) The emission or
absorption of energy occurs only in certain definite frequencies
clearly.
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2.7 Properties of the lines
spectrals
An optic sign spreads him
minimum in a small very nearby known as wide wave lengths number of
line.
The main properties of the
lines spectrals are three:
- The central position of
the line that corresponds to the frequency of the
wave.
- The force of the line or
intensity.
- The profile of the
composed line by the wide natural one and the wide additional one of the
line.
The wide additional one of
the line is proper, by a part, to the collision among molecules, referred like
the pressure of the wide band and, by the other, the movement aleatory of the
molecules and to the difference of its velocities, calls the wide band of the
Doppler.
The characterization of the
pressure of the wide one is fact by means of the profile of Lorentz, defined
like the factor of the form of the line spectral that is function of the
difference among the numbers of wave (92) most maximum and
central.
The wide of Doppler is
measured by means of the profile of the Doppler that is function of the
difference among the real and apparent frequencies of emission of the
wave.
The profiles of Lorentz and
Doppler combine in the called profile of Voigt.
(92) It is a number that
characterizes the wave according to the density of a medium one determined
through which spreads. The number of wave is equal to: angular frequency /
velocity.
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2.8 Some prominent properties of the
electromagnetic types of
waves
2.8.1
Microwave
These electromagnetic waves
cross mist, rain, snow, clouds and smoke, by which are utilized for
transportation of voice and data.
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2.8.2 Radio
waves
They are used to transport
signs of radio and television, Also, voice in systems of cell phone, to though,
with next lengths of wave to that of microwave.
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2.8.3
Infrared
The infrared waves are
thermals for which elevate the temperature of the object on which impact. Due to
that they are produced by to most all the bodies, still, by the colds (93). The
infrared waves are used to obtain maps and photos, where the images are built
taking advantage of the differences of temperature, among the different
components of the body transmitter, that cause correspond to the different
colors.
(93) Not thus by the super
colds.
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Chapter
3. The atom and the electromagnetism and its
application
to
laser
Chapter 3. The
atom and the electromagnetism and its application to
laser
3.1 The
processes of emission – absorption
3.2 The
interaction Hamiltonian
3.3 ¿Which is
the mechanism of the interaction among the atom and the electromagnetic
field?
3.5 The
electromagnetic emission
3.6 The
electromagnetic absorption
3.7 ¿What
other effects exist in the processes of emission and
absorption?
3.8 Universal
Principle of the interaction photon – charged
particle
3.9 The
equation of wave of Schrodinger (SWE)
3.12 The
production of the laser
3.12.2 The
atomic populations invested
3.12.3 The two
basic states of a population of atoms
3.12.4 Process
of optician pumps
3.12.5 Process
of emission stimulated of coherent light
3.13 Atomic
Populations of three states
3.15 The
polarization of Rabi and that of the spin of the
photon
3.16 Effects
distorting potential of the laser
3.16.4 The
profile of the Doppler in the laser
3.17 The
covering of the walls of the cavity of the laser
3.18
Transportation of data, voice, and image
3.19 Lasers of
pulse and continuous
3.21 The
action of two laser rays
The technology of the laser
consists of the coherent electromagnetic production of radiation, utilizing the
atoms of a determined middle substantial. The atoms are forced to enter an
energy emission process since its layers of electrons, by prior stimulation of
the step of the atoms to a state excited, that when is discharged generates said
emission.
The main problem of the
technology of the laser situates in reaching the greater purity in the ray
radiated. The defect of purity of the laser originates mainly of the effects of
the Doppler.
In this chapter the
interaction atom- electromagnetism is presented, employed to produce the laser
and is notified about the problem that introduces the Doppler.
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3.1 The processes of emission –
absorption
With certainty is known that
the atoms and the molecules present the electromagnetic phenomenon of
interaction with the present field in the middle surrounding one or originating
from electromagnetic sources of radiation. This interaction occurs of the two
following ways:
- The atoms transform the
electromagnetism received, in mechanical energy through the process of the
absorption of photons.
- The atoms transform
mechanical energy in electromagnetism, through the process of the radiation of
photons that are delivered to surrounding space.
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3.2 The interaction
Hamiltonian
Also, is certain that such
interaction of the atom with the 'space' (94), is an interaction in a continuous
one 3-D, that is to say, in all the directions of a space three-dimensional, and
that the transformations, in both senses, of the electromagnetism in mechanical
energy of the atom, occur according to the equation of energy of Hamilton, that
is to say:
Total mechanical Energy =
Energy kinetic + potential Energy
This it signifies that the
radiation or electromagnetic absorption produces changes in the energy kinetic
and potential of the atom.
(94) The space is full of free
fields or connected to its sources.
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3.3 ¿Which is the mechanism of the interaction
among the atom and the
electromagnetic
field?
The mechanism, of this
interaction, is not of the every acquaintance.
And ascertaining it the
science of the physics has evolved, since the conception of the mechanical
classic to the quantum conception.
According to the quantum
theory, in the atom the electromagnetic energy is transformed into mechanical
energy (95) and this in electromagnetic.
Therefore, the principle can
be introduced that the interaction among the atom and the electromagnetic field
is an interaction among the photon and the electron (96), in which the
electromagnetic energy originates or becomes energy mechanical of the electron.
(95) The mechanical energy,
that is to say, of the movement –energy kinetic- and of the position
–potential.
(96) Even the free electrons
when they pass through atoms reduce its velocity and radiate
electromagnetism.
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3.4 The phenomenon of emission and
electromagnetic absorption of the atom according to the
quantum
theory
The atoms and molecules, as
has been seen, only can exist in certain states characterized by specific
quantities of energy. When these they change its state is because absorb or emit
the exactly equal quantity of energy to pass to its new
state.
The energy of a photon is
equal to h x C / l
h x C is the constant Planck
multiplied by the velocity of the light
l is the length of
wave
If an atom or molecule
absorbs a photon of energy h x C / l the atom changes of a state
of energy to another higher state, increasing its energy in h x C /
l. Of course, if the atom
emits a photon changes to one more state under, diminishing its energy in h x C
/ l
. By
consequence:
a) If the atom or molecule
absorbs a photon then
final energy – initial energy = h
x C / l
b) If the atom or molecule
emits a photon then
initial energy – final energy = h x
C / l
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3.5 The
electromagnetic
emission
In the electromagnetic
process of emission the electrons lose potential energy, when it passes to an
orbital more nearby nucleus. The potential energy loss reappears in
electromagnetic form of energy, since the atom emits a photon of a specific
frequency, with properties of wave, whose energy is equal to the difference of
energy among the orbital initial and final. On the other hand, the electron
accelerates, by to enlarge its velocity of translation, that is to say, desire
energy kinetic that originates of the greater force exercised on him by the
nucleus, by to be reduced the distance among them.
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3.6 The
electromagnetic
absorption
In the electromagnetic
process of absorption the electrons gain potential energy, when it passes to an
orbital more distant one regarding the nucleus.
The potential energy gained
originates of the electromagnetic disappearance of energy radiated on the atom
and equal to that of a photon incident, with properties of wave, whose energy is
equal to the difference of energy among the orbital initial and
final.
On the other hand, the
electron decelerates, in its movement of translation, that is to say, loses
energy kinetic, that is the consequence of the smaller force exercised on him by
the nucleus, by to enlarge the distance among them.
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3.7 ¿What other effects exist in the processes
of emission and
absorption?
This totally it tested in
the experiments, carried out recently, in which it achievements 'to stop' the
light, that in the process of absorption is able the electromagnetic energy to
be reverted in the change of the orientation of the spin, that is to say, in the
orientation, up or down, of the electrons (97).
(97) The author asks: the orbital
at the moment angular change by the step of the electron of an orbital one to
another ¿how operates? If the angular moment diminishes should exist some type
of radiation hyperfine that would accompany to process of absorption. On the
contrary, by to enlarge ¿of where takes the energy? In this case, can originate
of the greater intensity of its interaction with the nucleus?
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3.8 Universal Principle of the interaction
photon –
charged
particle
In the interaction photon –
charged particle is produced exchange among electromagnetic energy and energy
mechanic (98).
(98) All the accelerators of
particles are base on to increase the energy kinetic lineal of a charged
particle through electric fields.
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3.9 The equation of wave of Schrodinger
(SWE)
It is, also, clear that the
SWE provides a completely satisfactory description of the spectrum of the atom
of hydrogen (99), keeping in mind the principle of uncertainty and the nature of
wave of the electron. Nevertheless, spectra exist that still deserve attention
(100).
The exact sense of the SWE
is the one that taking a function of wave valid (101), is defined mathematically
to electron in terms of its properties of wave. The function is represented for
t.
This function gives the
total of its energy from adding its energy kinetic and its potential energy,
that is to say:
Total energy i = Energy kinetic i + potential
Energy i
i determines one of the axes
of the continuous one 3-D
As to ready it was said,
this equation is defined in a continuous one 3-D, that is to say, in agreement,
to a system of coordinates Cartesian x, and, z. Therefore, the function is
defined on each axis (102).
The SWE is represented
for:
Ei = Hi
Each function of wave τ has
a corresponding energy E and by analogy with the atom of Bohr is called orbital.
These orbital represent the density of the distribution of electrons that float
around the nucleus with a potential energy given. The function of wave
pertaining to the smaller energy in an atom is called state discharged or state
E1. Any another state of an atom with energy > E1, it knows like state
excited of the atom. The energy is negative indicating that the electron, in an
orbit, is tied to nucleus. The energy is zero when the electron and nucleus are
considered infinitely separated. The level of energy of a determined orbital is
proportional to its potential energy; of such way, the more distant is an orbit
of the greater nucleus is its energy (103).
The square of the absolute
value of t it is proportional to the
probability to find an electron in a point (x, and, z) of the continuous one
3-D, that is to say, in a certain volume, by this is called density of
probability (104).
For the atom of hydrogen the
SWE indicates an infinite number of possible levels of energy. For energy zero
the system becomes continuum, where any energy is possible.
On this point the electron
flows free through the space to a specific velocity according to its energy
kinetic (105). The free electron loses the angular moment and acquires
longitudinal moment, regularly rectilinear.
The solutions obtained of
the SWE for the atom of hydrogen are extended through methods of approximation
to other atoms that do not have exact solutions, maintaining the idea of
orbital. Such orbital have the same form, but the energies are very
different.
(99) Due to its simplicity,
since is an electron around of a proton Also, exactly for some other atoms as
Helium, Lithium etc.
(100) For example, the
spectrum of the actinides has been under study for many
years.
(101) Are possible many as e1,
e2, e3 etc. Their solutions can be negatives, 0, positive or complex.
(102) This is: Ei = Hi according to x +
Hi according to y + Hi according to z.
(103) It possesses smaller negative energy and, therefore, it is
near to the energy 0. There can be orbits with equal or very similar energy;
therefore, there can be step, inter orbital of electrons, without emission or
with radiation of very scarce energy, when the energies of the orbits are nearby
equal.
(104) ÷ t ÷ High to the
2. The total probability to find
to electron is 1.
(105) In such state the atom is found ionized. And the energy to do
it is called energy of ionization.
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3.10 What is the
laser?
The laser (106) is the
device for the creation, amplification and broadcast of a cylindrical narrow and
intense ray of form of light coherent (107), of a specific frequency and with a
most minimum dispersion.
Some natural sources of
coherent microwave exist that originate of the space interstellar
(108).
The laser is in general an
artificial product (109) that produces light in the rank of the infrared wave to
ultraviolet, now extended to the frequency of X-rays. The laser can come to be
extremely intense, highly directional and very pure in frequency
(110).
(106)It is the acronym of Light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
(107) It is light that spreads in a specific direction of the 3-D,
composed of waves of a same length that are found in phase. While the current
light is directed in all directions, due to that its emission is aleatory and is
composed of waves of several lengths with different Relation of phase.
(108) For example, the Great
Nebula of Orion is one of the coherent sources of microwave. These waves really
are maser (Microwaves amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)
natural.
(109) Chat Townes is the
precursor of the laser by their investigations on masers. Townes shared the
Nobel Prize of physics 1964.
(110) The atom of cesium possesses the property that under a good
vacuum radiates in a narrow spectral line, whose frequency and length of wave
can be determined exactly.
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3.11 Components of the
laser
The laser consists of three
basic components:
- External Source of energy,
which can be special light of lamps, light of another laser, an electric current
or a chemical reaction.
- The middle of the laser,
that can be a gas, a liquid, a semiconductor, or a solid, which give its own
light.
- Cavity which is of
rectangular form closed in its extremes by mirrors; one totally reflective and
the other partially refractive, which do that the light oscillate of an extreme
to another of the cavity, through the middle of that is fact the laser and an even
narrow ray to exterior. The distance among the covers is the length of the
cavity of the laser.
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3.12 The production of the
laser
The technology of the laser
is bases on to amplify the power of the light incident, by means of the
stimulation of the atoms of the middle of the laser, to radiate coherent light.
This technology understands:
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3.12.1
Gain
The base of the laser is the
increase of the power of a sign optic at the outset with respect to that of
entrance. This term is synonym of amplification. A gain optic negative signifies
a loss. The power, or intensity, is the energy transfer rat by unit of
time.
The gain of power is
achieved by means of successive oscillations of the ray of light inside the
reflecting covers of the cavity.
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3.12.2 The atomic populations
invested
The normal state of the
atoms of a body in the Land is that of the state discharged, that is to say, in
which there is not electromagnetic emission of radiation. This does not it rule
out that some atoms be found in excited state (111). But, the majority of the
atoms are in state discharged.
One of the necessary
conditions for the coherent production of light is to invest the state of the
atomic population (112), of such way that the great majority of the atoms be
excited and only a very low quantity they be discharged. For manage to excite a
population is required to add him energy, which a process is done by means of
known as optician pumps.
(111) The electrons in the state excited, inside the atoms,
spontaneously decay to state discharged by means of electromagnetic emission of
waves that are of difficult detection.
(112) It refers to the atoms that compose the gas or material
liquid or solid, that is used to produce the laser.
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3.12.3 The two basic states of a population of
atoms
The two basic states of a
population of atoms are the discharged and excited.
The state discharged of the
population corresponds to joint of
atoms that are in its state of most minimum energy, that is when its electrons
are found inside orbital since the ones that cannot decay, either for being in
the most internal one (113) or all the orbital internal (114) to be found
occupied by other electrons (115). It is represented for ½
1>
The state excited of a
population corresponds to joint of
atoms that are excited, that is to say, when present electrons inside any of the
orbital that continue to n = 1 and
are able decay (116). It is represented for½
2>
The state discharged and
excited are ortonormal (117) and form a system (118). The difference of energy
in the system is the energy difference among these two states, for example,
among 1 s and 2 p. That is to say:
E2 - E1 = h x
w
E2 is the energy of the
state excited, for example, of the state 2 p
E1 is the energy of the
state discharged, for example, of the state 1 s
h is the constant one of
Planck
w is the frequency of the
electromagnetic wave
An electron can pass from
½ 1> to
½ 2> by absorbing a photon
real of energy h x w, It taken of an
electromagnetic field.
Or the electron can decay of
½ 2> to
½ 1> by emitting a photon
real of energy h x w, that is position in the
electromagnetic field, that this composed one of a lot photons real and virtual.
A few photons real aggregates or taken of the electromagnetic field it do not
affect.
An arbitrary quantum state,
for a system of an atomic population, is defined like the lineal combination of
all the possible states multiplied by a coefficient υ dependent of the time.
Thus the quantum state of the system, for the population in the two basic states
is:
½ _> = υ 1(t)½ 1> + υ
2(t)½
2>
½ _> is the quantum State
of the system
υ1 is the coefficient of the
state discharged ½
1>
υ2 is the coefficient of the
state excited ½
2>
(
t) function of the time
All the spatial information
is in ½ 1> and
½ 2> while the temporary
information in υ1 and υ2. The information spatial depends on the exact nature of
the state, for example: s, p, d, etc. The squares of υ1 and υ2 are the
probabilities (119) to find an atom in the state discharged and in the excited,
respectively (120).
(113) It is the case of the
atom of hydrogen when is found discharged.
(114) An orbital one is internal relating to another when is found
more nearby to nucleus.
(115) The atom discharged cannot emit radiation.
(116) every atom excited can
emit radiation.
(117)
Rectangular.
(118) A system is the assembly of the levels and sub levels of
energy (eigenvalues) that an atom presents.
(119) These probabilities vary in the
time.
(120) The joint probability of the states discharged and excited is
1.
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3.12.4 Process of optician
pumps
The normal atoms of
populations, in the state discharged, should absorb the energy of photons real
incidents, to pass to state excited. Nevertheless, the atoms in that state,
after certain time (121), the atoms spontaneously decays to state discharged,
emitting photons of the same energy of them absorbed.
A technique of to pump
electromagnetic energy, to invest an atomic population, is the call optician
pumps, that was utilized in the first laser and continues being
used.
The technique of optician
pumps consists of radiating the material or medium (122) of the laser with
higher light of frequency than the frequency of the laser, in order to avoid be
produced the phenomenon of resonance (123), and without producing the even atoms
of the state discharged to excited.
In lasers of gas other
techniques are used additionally. It is known as it pumps for collision; the
molecules of the gas cause collide with other molecules or with electrons freed
by means of discharges electrics (124).
The other technique is that
of molecular dissociation that consists of causing the wiggle quick of the
electrons, by the action of an external magnetic field; the behavior oscillatory
of the electrons induces them to emit radiation laser
(125).
(121) Time of decay of the
electron.
(122) The material of the laser can be a gas, liquid or
solid.
(123) The magnetic phenomenon of resonance was discovered by Isidor
Rabi, in 1938.
(124) For example, in lasers of Neon. The addition of Helium to
Neon increases the absorption of energy, on the part of the atoms, of the energy
radiated by the free electrons, during its collision against the electrons
inside the atoms.
(125) It is the case of the carbon dioxide
lasers.
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3.12.5 Process of emission stimulated of
coherent
light
A population invested of
atoms (126) enters a coherent light emission process, when cause impact photons
on its electrons that are found excited.
Such photons should have
energy equal to the difference of energy among the state excited and the
discharged (127), call frequency Rabi. Only, in this case the photons incidents
will stimulate (128) that the electrons struck emit photons in the same
frequency, phase and direction of the incidents, that is to say, they produce
photons cloned. The photons radiated are added to the photons incidents, inside
a process of amplification, and together intervene in a new repetition of the
emission stimulated of coherent light. This it produces a sudden emission of a
coherent gust of light, through which the great majority of the atoms are
discharged, in a giddy reaction in chain.
All this process occurs
during a lower time for the decay spontaneous (129) of the electrons. In this
manner, the emission laser is produced approximately to same time and in the
same direction (130).
(126) In the maser causes impacts photons of energy inside the
frequency of the microwave.
(127) If the energy of the photons incidents is a great deal
greater can expel the electrons of the atom ionizing it. For it the photons
should have an equivalent energy to the call of ionization that is specific of
each type of atom.
(128) Chat Townes and Arthur
Schawlow, in their investigations with microwave, discovered that the
electromagnetic waves, when they interact with the atoms and molecules return
stronger.
(129) This time, to though, aleatory is sufficiently long, so that
the life of the population invested turn out to be
stable.
(130) In the normal process the atoms emit electromagnetic
radiation in times and aleatory directions.
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3.13 Atomic Populations of three
states
The orbital s, p, d, f, etc.
can present subdivision due to the presence of the structure superfine, to ready
well be for natural condition of the atom or induced by means of the effect
Zeeman.
If the orbital most internal
one is subdivided, s, that is to ways a state discharged, in the hyperfine sub
levels of energy + F and -F two states are obtained discharged that they are
represented for ½ 1> and
½ 2>. In this way, the
state excited is represented for ½ 3>. As consequence, in
the state excited can to occur the two types of transition Rabi
following:
R1½ 1> <->
½
3>
R2½ 2> <->
½
3>
R1 is h x
w of the photon with energy =
E3 - E1
R2 is h x
w of the photon with energy =
E3 - E2
Initially the atomic
population is found in thermal equilibrium (131) among the states discharged
½ 1> and
½ 2>. The state excited
½ 3>, initially it is
found empty.
By means of the technical
one Raman, that consists of applying a ray laser tuned in a frequency Rabi(132),
R1, to pass the atoms of the state ½ 1> ->
½ 3>, of where decay
to state ½ 1> or
½ 2> Emitting photons with
energy = E3 - E1 or E3 – E2. If the atoms decay to state ½ 1> they are able again
to be excited, through repeating the application of the frequency Raman, R1.
After certain number of repetitions of this process, approximately the totality
of the population will be found in the state discharged E2, dark state call,
because no longer will be able to be stimulated more emission of
radiation.
Nevertheless, if it wants to
maintain the atoms radiating, applies another laser, tuned in the frequency
Raman R2 to pass the atoms of the state ½ 2> ->
½ 3>, of where decay to
state ½ 1> or
½ 2> Emitting now with
energy = E3 - E2.
If the atoms decay to state
½ 2> they are able again
to be excited, applying again the laser. After certain number of cycles, the
population will be found in the state discharged E1, which will be now the dark
state.
To avoid the interruption of
the process, the lasers change of frequency increasing one and decremented the
other, of such way that at the same time have only a laser carrying out the
optical pump, and never one of the dark states be
reached.
(131) approximately, equal
number of atoms in both states.
(132) When the frequency Rabi manages to apply a ray laser is
called frequency Raman.
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3.14 Frequencies
Rabi
The transition of the
electrons of a state of energy any to another of smaller energy as, for example,
of E2 to E1 produces the emission of a photon of energy h x ω and wave of a
discrete specific frequency (133) ω, directly proportional to the difference E2
- E1.
The same thing occurs, to
though in contrary sense, when the electrons pass to a greater state of energy,
case in which absorb a photon of energy h x ω.
The frequency of the wave ω,
of a specific electronic transition, is known as the frequency of
resonance.
The different natural
frequencies of resonance of the atoms was measured by Isidoro Rabi (134) by
means of a technique that invented, magnetic call resonance, that refers to the
absorption resonant of energy by the atom (135).
Particularly, Rabi
discovered and manipulated the hyperfine transition of the atoms. Rabi
achievements to change the direction of the spin of the electrons and protons
(136), he applied electromagnetic sources of energy with equal frequency to that
of the spin of the respective particle. Rabi applying change frequency radio
waves the direction of the spin of the proton of the hydrogen, as a result of
causing to absorb resonant electromagnetic energy.
In general, the frequencies
of absorption - emission of the atoms are frequencies
Rabi.
(133) These frequencies are identical for all the atoms of a type
of element given. In the case of the atom of cesium 133 their frequencies of
emission are 9, 192, 631 and 770 cycles by second.
(134) Rabi gained, by this
work, the prize Nobel in 1944.
(135) For example, in a laser
when the cavity and the atoms have the same frequency is produces by resonance
the emission of photons.
(136) In these particles the spin is connected with the moment of
the quantity of movement.
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3.15 The polarization of Rabi and that of the
spin of the
photon
The phenomenon of
polarization has in the laser the following
meanings:
- The polarization of the
spin of the photon that consists of restricting its orientation well behind or
ahead of its parallel direction to that of the electromagnetic wave,
polarization that is different to that of the particles elementals
(137).
- The management of the
polarization of the spin of the electrons, of the atomic middle of the laser
that is a consequence of the experiments of Rabi, to though, said polarization
can occur in the nature spontaneously (138).
(137) According to the
experiments of Stern/Gerlach the spin of the elementary particles is quantized
in the up the orientation and below the magnetic field. The spin polarized the
preserve, to though, restricted to a spatial only
direction.
(138) To See Klipstein,
Lamoreaux and Fortson (1995).
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3.16 Effects distorting potential of the
laser
The
effects distorting potential of the laser are of two classes. Those
are: The effects of dispersion and the effects of the Doppler.
3.16.1 Effects of
dispersion
When the light of a source
crosses the middle, inside the cavity of the laser, the absence of the perfect
uniformity of the density of the middle produces certain deviation of the light
that emits the laser with relation to the phase of the light incident. If the
middle is solid the deviation occurs inside an only frequency and dispersion is
called of Brilloiun. But, if the middle is liquid or gaseous, the frequency of
the dispersion depends on the fluctuations of the density of the middle and
dispersion is called of Rayleigh.
On the other hand, the
population invested generates radiation of light by spontaneous discharge of the
population excited, that is to say, without resulting of the radiation
stimulated by the collisions of the photons
incidents.
This light is incoherent in
front of that of the ray laser and it knows like dispersion of
Raman.
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3.16.2 Effects of the
Doppler
The Doppler has consequences
additionally distorting in the light produced by the laser. Its undesirable
consequences are:
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3.16.3 The band
broadening
The laser presents some
distortions, due to the dispersion and to Doppler, which do that the laser,
emit, inside a closely band, several frequencies of light. The coherent
characteristic of light is relating to the great majority of the waves,
components of the radiation, but not to its totality.
The spectral line of a laser
presents certain wide that corresponds mainly to:
-
Temperature
-
Intensity
- The dispersion of
Brilloiun or Rayleigh.
- The effects of
dissemination of Raman (139).
- The natural collision
among the atoms (140).
- The collision of the atoms
against the walls of the cavity.
Also, a wide additional one
exists (141) caused by the effect Doppler (142) of the movement, with different
velocities and directions, of the atoms with respect to the direction of the
light emitted, producing the landslides to
red, when said directions coincide, and to blue when are in contrary sense.
In direct proportion, the
Doppler broadening changes, with the
temperature (143) and the length (144) of the cavity of the laser.
(139) An important factor of distortion of the emission of the
laser is that of the dissemination of Raman proper to spontaneous traffic,
during the emission, of some atoms, of the state excited to
discharge.
(140) Pressure of the wide one
of the line.
(141) Doppler
broadening.
(142) The effect Doppler is of all types of wave. In the case
optic, in the astronomical scale, changes the light to blue when the stars
approach to red when move away.
(143) The velocity of the atoms and molecules is a direct function
of the temperature.
(144) The apparent frequencies of emission of the proper light to
Doppler, are in direct function of the length of the cavity of the
laser.
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3.16.4 The profile of the Doppler in the
laser
The profile of the Doppler
is defined like the factor of the form (145) of the line spectral of the proper
laser to Doppler and express the difference among the frequency apparent (146),
in which seems to emit the laser and the real frequency in which does
it.
(145) The factor of form
originating from the pressure of the wide one is called profile of Lorentz that
combined with that of the Doppler constitutes the profile of
Voigt.
(146) It know as detuning.
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3.16.5 Light
detuning
Light detuning that seems
not to originate of an atomic process of transition nevertheless to be that its
origin, due to the distortion of its frequency of emission by the effect
Doppler. Depending on the relative movement among the photons and the atoms the
frequency enlarges when coincide in direction or diminishes when go in against.
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3.17 The covering of the walls of the cavity of
the
laser
The effect of the collisions
of the atoms against the walls of the cavity of the laser is to cause the
magnetic disruption of the states of energy of the structure hyperfine atomic.
Norman Ramsey found that to reduce said disruption the walls with the cavity
should be covered with Teflon. Subsequently, it was established that, at least,
for the cesium is a great deal better covered them with
paraffin.
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3.18 Transportation of data, voice, and
image
The transportation of energy
and the transportation of a sign by means of the electromagnetic wave constitute
the two large physical results of which the one will depend that the velocities
superluminales, based on the light, they come they to constitute a crucial fact
in front of the present theory of the Relativity.
Nowadays, so much the
transportation of energy as of signs continues restricted to be done with the
velocity of the light, in the empty, or lower.
If in the future comes this
velocity to surpass will be produced a great crisis in the physical
theoretician, because there will be himself tested the transportation
superluminal velocities existence.
The broadcast of data,
voice, or image through an electromagnetic wave is performed by means of the
technique of modulation.
The modulation is the
creation of a binary pattern of 1s and 0s, to transmit data codified, through a
network optic. This function is carried out for a modulator that controls the
sign at the outset of a laser.
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3.19 Lasers of pulse and
continuous
Two types of lasers
exist:
- CW which have the capacity
to emit radiation continuously.
- Pulse, that consists of
the short or broken production of a gust with duration of milliseconds,
microseconds, or nanoseconds.
The light emitted has form
of pulse when the laser is bases on the step of the population invested to a
normal one, producing a sudden only gust of laser; these are of greater
power.
The light is continuous in
the lasers CW. This it manages to causing oscillating the gust toward before and
backwards, by means of the use of the mirrors that serve of covers of the cavity
of the laser, one of which is semitransparent for, on the one hand, to permit
the exit of the ray laser and, at the same time, to reflect part of the to bait
new ray processes of optician pumps (147). With this technique, manages to
invest the atomic population as soon as is uncharged and the continuous emission
of light be stimulated; these are known as cw lasers,
which have been the laser of smaller potency (148).
(147) In this case, is
required that the atomic population can exist in minimum three states, dividing
the discharged in two, by means of the use of the division hyperfine. Also, it
is required to supply electromagnetic energy to replace the one that is
radiated.
(148) Recently, in the University of the State of
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3.20 Laser
tuning
The lasers tunings are the
ones that can be adjusted to emit in a frequency among
several.
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3.21 The action of two
laser
rays
If two lasers are, tuned in
different frequency, the rays excite to groups of atoms of different
velocity.
If the frequency of the
lasers is considerably lower in front of an atomic transition, the rays will be
absorbed for the atoms that with a high velocity move toward them. If there is a
frequency very closed to the frequency of resonance, only the atoms can absorb
it with parallel component of velocity to ray. In this case, two lasers can
excite to same group of atoms, provided that they being tuned in frequencies, to
though, different closed to that of resonance.
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Part
2. The superluminal
velocities
Chapter 4. The
electromagnetic interaction with the substantial middle and the subluminal
velocities
4.1 Velocities
of the photon, the energy, sign, phase and group
4.2 The
electromagnetic interaction in the limit among two
middles
4.3 The
division of the electromagnetic wave in pulses
4.4 Mechanisms
of the reflection and refraction
4.4.1
Refraction of mechanical waves
4.4.2
Refraction of the electromagnetic wave
4.4.3
Mechanical Reflection of waves
4.4.4
Reflection of the electromagnetic wave
4.4.5 Internal
Reflection total
4.4.6 The
velocity zero of the light
5 The
experiment of velocity superluminal based on the technology Gain
Assisted
5.4 The
velocity of the pulses of light
5.5 Relations
among the velocities of phase and group
5.7 The
velocities of phase and group can surpass C
5.8 The
existing problems around the greater velocity that C
5.9 The
experiment of Princeton
5.9.1 General
description of the experiment
5.9.2
Interpretation of the experiment
5.9.3 Partial
Explanations that have been given
The phenomenon of the electromagnetic field is
of a great complexity and difficulty of a correct comprehension. Its structure
is not observable directly as if is it that of the atom, due to that the photon
exists in the level of the scale of Planck (149). On the other hand, on account
of the complexity of the demonstrations of the photon some times as wave and
other as much as, the great dilemma exists of if is real(150), that
constitution, or as maintained the school of Copenhagen it really physical are
the photons and the wave its probability to find them in the continuous one 4-D,
that is to say, a mathematical mechanism that permits the physicists to describe
them statistically, since Photons only are perceptible in large quantities and
not individually, as has been achieved with the
atom.
Nevertheless that the
electromagnetic wave itself continuous defining like the propagation in the
vacuum of the vibration of the adapt of the electric field - magnetic (151) and
as such its energy is in function of the amplitude of the wave, that is to say,
of its intensity, it experimentally certain is that the interaction of the
electromagnetic wave with the atom occurs through the photons whose energy, as
opposed to wave, depends on the frequency of the vibration (152), that is to
say, from its quantum character, revealed in the effect photoelectric 153). A
greater intensity of light has more photons than impact on a greater number of
electrons, but if its frequency is not high there will not be liberation of
electrons.
To weigh that the velocity
of the photon is to ways C (154), Also, is experimentally established that the
velocity of the wave is C, only in the vacuum, and that in any substantial
middle is less than C and in the anomalous middle (155) is greater that
C.
In this second splits, we
will present, in the chapter 4, the electromagnetic interaction with the
substantial middle and the velocities of subluminal wave and, in the chapter 5,
the electromagnetic interaction with the anomalous middle and the velocity of
wave superluminal, achieved with the technology Gain
Assisted.
(149) The difference among the scale of the atom and that of Planck
is similar to which exists among the size of a man and that of our galaxy. Still
smaller is the scale of existence of the structure of the gravity field.
(150) In the formulation of
the quantum theory two schools are recognized the realist and that of
Copenhagen, that nevertheless to utilize the same equations differ radically in
their interpretation of the duality wave-particle of the light. At present, the
physicists are received to the second school. In every case, this shows that it
is more important the philosophical interpretation in front of the mathematical
apparatus.
(151) Adopting the realistic
point of view these fields would be composed of photons similarly to as a
substantial middle is it of atoms. (152) But, the photons possess velocity C
while the atoms are closely in rest.
(153) Number of waves by
second or in terms from the period the interim of the
oscillation.
(154) Discovered in 1900 and
that it consists of the expulsion of electrons of the atom caused by the
incident of the light.
(155) The author maintains the
theory that the velocity C of the photon is the value taken, by this "constant"
fundamental, in ours present Universe that spreads to "super cold", that is to say, to 0 absolute of Kelvin. Not thus in the
super temperatures that existed when the electromagnetic field appeared, after
the Big-Bang. And that they will return to exist when this field return to its
origin, when be integrated in the supergravity, in the end of the times, that is
to say, when return to occur the Big-Crunch.
(156) They have been created
from the technologies of the evanescent waves, developed by Gunter Nimtz, in
Colonia, Germany, in 1992 and that of Gain Assisted, originated, in Princeton,
US, by the group of Wang, Dogariu and Kuzmich, in the 2000.
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Chapter
4. The electromagnetic interaction with the
substantial middle and the subluminal
velocities
Chapter 4. The
electromagnetic interaction with the substantial middle and the subluminal
velocities
4.1 Velocities
of the photon, the energy, sign, phase and group
4.2 The
electromagnetic interaction in the limit among two
middles
4.3 The
division of the electromagnetic wave in pulses
4.4 Mechanisms
of the reflection and refraction
4.4.1
Refraction of mechanical waves
4.4.2
Refraction of the electromagnetic wave
4.4.3
Mechanical Reflection of waves
4.4.4
Reflection of the electromagnetic wave
4.4.5 Internal
Reflection total
4.4.6 The
velocity zero of the light
The electromagnetic wave interacts with the
substantial middle through two mechanisms that result of its duality wave -
particle. The first one, that is fully accepted, is the mechanism of the
processes of absorption - electromagnetic emission of radiation by the atoms, of
fundamentally quantum nature. And the second mechanism is of the interaction
exactly undulatory, that the author proposes in front of the empty theoretician
existing.
In this chapter are
presented both mechanisms pertaining to the effects of refraction, consequence
of the quantum interaction, and reflection that can be owed to the interaction
undulatory.
Of these effects, the basic
one for the theme that develops, in the following chapter, is the effect of
refraction, since is one of the bases of the technology Gain Assisted, for the
achievement of the velocity superluminal.
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4.1 Velocities of the photon, the energy, sign,
phase and
group
The electromagnetic wave
possesses at least five types of velocities. These velocities
are:
- That of the photon real
(156) quantum component of the electromagnetic field
(157).
- That of the energy that
transports like wave. In this case the quantity of energy depends on the
amplitude of the electromagnetic wave.
- That of the sign when the
electromagnetic wave transports information. That is to say, when the energy
that transports the electromagnetic wave has been modulated, by means of a
binary process of generation of the wave, of lit dull, that is to say,
periodically presence or not of the wave, that causes corresponds according to a
system of codification. For example, the ASCII (158), or the EBCDIC (159), etc.
to letters, numbers and special characters.
- That of phase pertaining
to the velocity of the phase of a wave confined to an only frequency and length
of wave.
- That of group that is the
velocity of phase of a package of waves of different frequencies and lengths of
wave.
These five velocities in the
vacuum are equal to C. But, in substantial middle of normal dispersion or in
anomalous regions the only velocity that continues equal to C is that of the
photon. The other velocities change.
(156) Energy packaged in
quanta and directly proportional to the frequency of oscillation of the
electromagnetic wave.
(157) When the energy packaged
of the photon vibrates, cross to the direction of the wave, and inside the joint
of the electric-magnetic fields, the disruption of the electromagnetic field is
produced, fact of photons. This disruption of the field spreads in the 4-D, and
in this sense, constitutes a wave in the purest classical meaning. But, as
opposed to the mechanical wave, whose particles components are practically
stops, the electromagnetic wave spreads together with the myriads of photons
real that compose it, to the velocity C. Therefore, the electromagnetic wave is
as real as presents it the realistic school, but, simultaneously is not of the
all the classical wave, but Also the movement of myriads of photons, whose
energy depends on its frequency of oscillation, that is the same one of the
wave, and that move isotropic and probabilistically with the wave, as it defines
the school of Conpenhague. This is one idea of the Author.
(158) American code standard
for the exchange of information.
(159) Extend binary coded decimal interchange
code.
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4.2 The electromagnetic interaction in the
limit among two
middles
A middle is the entity where
is originated and transports a wave, composed without doubt in the substantial
middle (160) by a series of units interconnected and in interactions with its
adjacent permitting, of such way, that a disruption be able propagate (161).
When a middle finishes another begins, the inter phase of the two middles is
referred like the limit.
The behavior of a wave when
reaches the end of a middle, through which spreads, is known like the behavior
of the limit.
When an electromagnetic wave
passes from middle to another can be that the wave
goes:
- Of the vacuum to a middle
of atomic composition, in normal regions. The velocity C changes to a smaller
velocity, due to the interaction of the electromagnetic wave with the atoms that
compose the substantial middle. That interaction retards the wave as a result of
the interim of the cycle of absorption - emission of the atoms.
- Of a middle of atomic
composition, of normal dispersion, with a specific optic density to another
middle, also, of atomic composition and normal dispersion, but of different
optic density. The first middle can have smaller or greater optic density that
the second. When the electromagnetic wave passes from a substantial middle of
smaller density to another of greater density its velocity diminishes and, in
the contrary case, its velocity enlarges.
This is due to the biggest
or smaller frequency of the atomic cycle of absorption-emission of the second
middle with relation to first.
- Of a middle of atomic
composition to vacuum. The velocity of the electromagnetic wave returns C, due
to the absence of the atomic cycle of
absorption-emission.
- Of the vacuum or since a
middle of atomic composition, of normal dispersion, to an anomalous region. The
velocity of the electromagnetic wave returns greater that
C.
- Of an anomalous region to
vacuum or to a middle of atomic composition. The velocity of the electromagnetic
wave diminishes to C, in the vacuum, or to more less than C, in a substantial
middle of normal dispersion.
In all these events the
phenomena of reflection, refraction and diffraction that result of the
interaction of the electromagnetic wave and a substantial middle, are similar to
them presented in the interaction that is produced with a mechanical wave that
spreads among different substantial middle. But, it should be observed that the
mechanisms of the interaction, of the mechanical and electromagnetic waves are
essentially different. While that in the propagation of a mechanical wave, as
the sound or a wave in the sea, among different middles, the mechanism of the
interaction to ways occurs among atomic structures, to though, different with
respect to its physical density. For example, when the wave of the sea crashes
against a cliff the interaction that is produced is among the molecules of the
water of sea and the molecules of the rocks of the cliff. Does not thus it occur
with the electromagnetic wave, since the mechanisms of interaction are produced
among fundamentally different structures of nature.
The laws that govern the
mechanism of the interaction of a mechanical wave, being spread among
substantial middle, of different materials, are the laws of the mechanical one
Newtonian, applied to the collision among particles. On the other hand, the
interaction among the electromagnetic wave and the regular substance by the laws
of the quantum mechanics, of the processes of absorption and emission of
radiation on the part of the atom.
The electromagnetic wave
that goes to or leaves of a substantial
middle , or passes through different substantial middle to ways is holds
to the processes of the interaction of a structure of the field, that is the
electromagnetic wave, with an atomic structure, under specific configurations,
of the respective middle or substantial middle.
The interaction among the
photon and the atom occurs among the scale of Planck, in which the matter is
found organized from quanta of energy, and the microscopic scale (162) in which
the matter is organized from atoms. That is to say, the interaction is among
myriads of photons invisible to microscope, of the electromagnetic wave, by each
atom of the substantial middle.
Nevertheless, that the
mechanisms of the interaction of the electromagnetic wave with the substantial
middle are quite different to the mechanisms of the interaction of the
mechanical wave, the same effects are produced of diffraction, reflection and
refraction, with to most equal properties.
The main difference situates
that, in said interaction, in the electromagnetic waves the phenomenon can be
produced of rephase, unknown for the mechanical
waves.
(160) The middle is constitute for fields and these are formed by
quanta virtual and real. The virtual quanta are the transmitters of the forces
exercised by the fields and the quanta real are the components of the waves that
are generated and transmit in the fields.
(161) Propagation is the
movement of a wave through middle.
(162) By means of the
electronic microscope has been able to see the atomic structure, of any
substantial material.
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4.3 The division of the electromagnetic wave in
pulses
The electromagnetic wave,
when reaches the limit among the middle in which spreads and one new, on the one
hand, is returned that is the effect of reflection, and by the other is
transmitted to new medium (163).
The energy of the primitive
wave (164) is divided into the energies reflected, that remains in the native
middle and the transmitted that passes to new middle. The wave that returns is
the pulse (165) reflected. While, the disruption generated in the new middle is
the pulse transmitted.
(163) When the light impacts on some materials the light reflects
most totally, these are the opaque materials. On other materials the light
refracts most totally, these are the material translucent or transparent. In the
others, material the light reflects and refracts.
(164) This energy should be that of the amplitude of the
electromagnetic wave. Therefore, is really physical the wave?
(165) A pulse is a singular disruption being moved through middle
since a place to another.
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4.3.1
Reflection
In the pulse reflected the
waves, that compose it, conserve the frequency, velocity (166) and length, and
invest the phase and the sense of the direction of the primitive waves, also,
reduce its amplitude (167).
When the primitive wave
impacts not perpendicularly on the new middle, that is to say, form an angle
with respect to the normal line, the pulse reflected maintains the same angle of
the wave incident, to though, invested.
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4.3.2
Refraction
The waves that compose the
pulse transmitted experience the effect of refraction, that consists of the
changes of amplitude, rapidity and depending on the angle, with which it do, is
able that, Also, the direction of the velocity; the waves conserve its direction
when penetrate perpendicularly to
new middle, that is to say with angle zero.
In all the cases, the
refract waves maintain the phases and the frequencies of the primitive simple
waves.
When the front of wave (168)
penetrates to new middle, with a
greater angle to zero, the waves, that came rectilinear, change its direction
exactly to cross the limit, among
the two middle, and continue being spread in straight line, on, in the new
direction. The change in the direction obeys to the law of Snell, whose
mathematical expression is:
n1 x sine of the angle of the
primitive wave = n2 x sine of the angle of the pulse
transmitted
where: n1 is the index of
refraction of the native middle
n2 is the index of refraction
of the new middle
The angles are measured with
respect to the normal line.
When the electromagnetic
wave passes to middle with density greater than the primitive middle, the length
and the velocity of the wave diminish. If, on the contrary, the density of the
new middle is less than that the primitive one the length and the velocity
enlarge.
(168) It is the displacement of the electromagnetic wave in
agreement cone a rectangular plan.
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4.4 Mechanisms of the reflection and
refraction
Mechanisms
of the reflection and refraction are different for the
mechanical waves and the electromagnetic waves.
Thus:
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4.4.1 Refraction of mechanical
waves
In the mechanical waves,
which are the propagation of a substantial disruption, the vibration of the
molecules of the primitive middle, in the limit, begin to vibrate the molecules
of the new middle, through their mutual collisions.
If the primitive middle is
denser physically (169) that the new middle, the vibration is amplified in the
new middle, for which enlarges the length of the wave and their velocity, due to
that the moment transmitted, during the molecular collision, acts on a structure
with smaller mass. The contrary thing occurs when is passed from a middle of
smaller to another of greater density.
(169) The physical density is equal to the mass among the volume of
the middle.
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4.4.2 Refraction of the electromagnetic
wave
The electromagnetic wave
always is expanded in the vacuum to the velocity of the photons C, still, in the
case of when spreads in a substantial middle, for those photons, that move in
the vacuum that exists among the molecules and atoms (170). Nevertheless, also,
it is produced refraction but this is the effect of the interaction of the
electromagnetic field with the atoms of the substantial middle.
The refraction consists that
when the wave passes is produced absorption of photons on the part of the atoms,
what begins to vibrate to the electrons. If the frequency of the photons
absorbed is not resonant with the natural frequency (171) of vibration of the
electrons, the energy absorbed is reemitted in the form of a new electromagnetic
wave, with the same frequency of the original wave, due to that the electrons
vibrate during a reduced time and inside small amplitude.
The change of the direction
of the wave is produced by the different times in which the photons, components
of the front of wave, reach to the atoms of the substantial middle, when the
direction of the penetration forms an angle with the line of separation of the
two interacting middle. The direction is maintained when the angle is zero.
The pulse transmitted is
able, additionally, to lose energy, if some of its photons are absorbed resonant
(172).
The photons emitted, during
the emission of the new electromagnetic wave, can continue intervening in the
cycle of absorption – emission of the interaction.
In normal dispersion the
velocity of the pulse (173) is reduced with respect to when the wave spreads in
an empty substantially middle, due to time of the retard of the cycle of
absorption - emission that is presented during the interaction among the
electromagnetic wave and the atoms. That is to say, though, the photons always
travel to a velocity C, is also certain, that the wave, composed for trillions
of photons is able, in the substantial middle, to fall its velocity under
C.
In the interaction of the
electromagnetic wave with a substantial middle, of more important, normal
dispersion than the physical density is the optic density. Since, the reduction
of the rapidity of the velocity of the wave depends mainly of the optic density
(174) of the middle. Of such way, if the electromagnetic wave interacts with a
substantial middle with a smaller optic density that another middle loses
rapidity when passes to that middle. On the contrary, if the optic density of
the new middle is smaller the rapidity of the wave transmitted enlarges.
Provided that the electromagnetic wave passes from the vacuum to a substantial
middle of normal dispersion its velocity and length diminish. An indicator of
the optic density of the middle is the index of refraction of the substantial
middle which is called n and the following equation is measured by means
of:
n = Velocity of the
electromagnetic wave in the vacuum / velocity of the electromagnetic wave in a
substantial middle determined
The index of refraction of
the velocity of the electromagnetic wave in the vacuum is 1 and in the other
substantial middle of normal dispersion is greater that 1 or in an anomalous
middle, as the used by the group of
(170) The volume of a substantial middle in its greater part is
empty. Particularly, the volume of an atom is practically
empty.
(171) It is the frequency or
frequencies in which the electron tends to vibrate when absorbs electromagnetic
energy.
(172) It occurs when an
electron is struck for a photon whose frequency is the same frequency of the
natural frequency of the electron, which begins to vibrate it with a long
amplitude, doing that collide with the neighboring atoms and the energy of its
movement vibration become heat, case in which there is not emission of a wave
with the same frequency from that of the photon incident, to ready of the energy
is transmitted in the collision. The author proposes that the absorption
resonant of the electromagnetic wave when it does that the atoms interact with
other can generate a very weak mechanical wave.
(173) The speed of the pulse is acquaintance, also, as the velocity
of phase of the electromagnetic wave.
(174) The optic density refers to long time of the movement
vibration of the electrons before emitting. This type of density depends on the
type of the atoms of a substantial specific middle.
(175) Nevertheless, if the
velocity is taken superluminal, produced during the experiment carried out in
Princeton, and it calculates the index of refraction its value results lesser
than 1, and equal to 3 thousandth, which is not the index of refraction of the
gas of cesium but the effect of the electromagnetic band of rephase.
Additionally said velocity is that of group of the electromagnetic wave.
(176) In laboratory, since 1999, the velocity of the
electromagnetic wave went reducing until, at the beginning of the 2001, becomes
it zero. In These experiments, they were created regions of highest index of
refraction, not existing in the nature.
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4.4.3 Mechanical Reflection of
waves
In a mechanical wave when
finds the limit, the molecules can interact with the molecules of the other
middle and by the principle of reaction of Newton, the last molecules of the
middle native suffer an action of the first molecules of the new middle, what
generates in the wave reflected the investment of their phase, which to ways
occurs when the wave passes from a middle less dense to another more
dense.
Nevertheless, it is able
that in the limit not interaction occur or that be very weak, by which the wave
reflected preserve the phase of the primitive wave, which to ways occurs when
the wave passes from more dense middle to another less dense. For example, for a
parallel, cross wave to the normal line, of a vibrant cord if finishes in a
fixed point, the molecules of the middle native, in the limit, push up the
molecules of the second middle, which in reaction push downward to the molecules
of the first middle, producing in the last crest or valley, that the wave of
return have the phase invested. The length of wave reflected is the same length
of the native wave, due to that the frequency and velocity are the
same.
But, if the vibrant cord
finishes in a free point is able that the vibration of the molecules of the
limit not has interaction with those of the new middle and the wave reflected
conserve the same phase, that is to say, the crests or valleys return without
being invested.
As it is removed, the
reflected wave is not the effect of the interaction among the molecules of the
middle, but the consequence that, the propagation of the wave, reach the
molecules terminals of the original middle.
The idea about the mechanism
of the reflection is that of marine wave that, when it crashed against a cliff,
produces a wave of return or is expanded in the water less dense of a river,
which displaces to the most maximum limit in function of the energy that
transports, that is to say, of its amplitude from which its return is produced,
to the way of a rubber that after being stretched.
The wave transmitted always
conserves its frequency, due to that was originated for the vibration with a
specific frequency of the original and, also, preserve the phase of the
primitive wave, due to that the molecules of the new middle are in principle in
rest, regarding the wave, and any change will be in the same direction of the
molecules incidents.
But on the other hand, has a
smaller length the wave when passes from a middle less to one denser and greater
length of wave in the contrary case.
A greater or smaller energy
is reflected in the collisions of the molecules exist among two middle,
according to the principle of action – reaction (177), of the mechanics of
- Of the angle of
penetration of the primitive wave in the new middle, with respect to the divisor
line of the two middle.
- And of the biggest or
smaller physical density of the new middle with relation to primitive
middle.
If the mass of the particles
of the primitive middle is a great deal more less than the mass of the particles
of the new middle, for example, during a vibration molecular movement of the
water its collision against iron is produced, the force of reaction exercised by
the molecules of the iron, on the molecules of water, will do that a reflected
wave in the water be generated, without the action of the those of iron reach
has to generate the movement of vibration of the molecules of the iron. In this
case, the reflection will be total; that is to say, the effect will not be
presented of refraction, due to that there will not be wave
transmitted.
(177) To every action exercised by a particle on another an equal
reaction corresponds and of contrary sense exercised by the second particle on
the first one.
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4.4.4 Reflection of the electromagnetic
wave
The mechanism of the
reflection of the light can have to see with the pressure photonic, effect of
Poynting – Robertson (178), on the middle in which impacts the electromagnetic
wave and will be able to be in function of the amplitude (179) of the wave. This
effect does not only transmit moment to
medium but should bounce in inflexible, or to displace it, in elastic
middle, to the way of the mechanical waves, which permits that the native front
of wave be expanded to the limit of its energy done not transmit, from which
initiates its return.
This it can be the effect of
the electromagnetic wave in its integrity, as material concrete entity (180),
and individual (181), when it impacts, since the vacuum or since a substantial
middle, on another substantial middle.
(178) This effect puts in movement to the particles of dust and
affects the movement of the artificial satellites.
(179) To greater amplitude of the greater wave is the number of
photons that compose the wave.
(180) It constituted of myriads of
photons.
(181) With behavior packaged in a
wave.
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4.4.5 Internal Reflection
total
The internal reflection
total consists of the reflection of the entire light incident on the limit
exists among two middle. This phenomenon only occurs when it presents the two
following conditions:
- A ray of light passes from
more dense middle to another less dense middle
(182).
- The angle of incident of
the ray of light is greater that the called critical
angle.
When the angle of incident
has a specific value the refraction occurs along the limit. This is the critical
angle. Its value depends of the materials of that both middles are makes. Under
the critical angle the refraction occurs inside the second middle. Over the
critical angle refraction does not exist.
Mathematically the critical
angle is the inverse one of the sine of the quotient of the indices of
refraction of the middle less dense among that of the densest middle.
(182) This property of the electromagnetic wave occurs in a
contrary way in front of the mechanical waves, where can be presented when a
middle less dense interact with another denser middle.
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4.4.6 The velocity zero of the
light
In 1999, in
In this middle the velocity
of a ray of light to 17 meters by second was
reduced.
Since then has improved,
this technology, to continue descending the velocities of group and phase of the
light.
Recently, at the beginning
of 2001, the light was stop and stored for its subsequent use.
The achievement of the
velocity zero of the light was done for two different groups of scientists, in
the universities of Harvard (184) and in Red Boulder. The information that
transported the rays of light engraving on the atoms of a gas went.
Both groups, by means of
different technologies, to though base on various lasers applied in different
phases of the process, one of which is used of control and another is that of
test, they created a substantial artificial middle with a highest index of
refraction.
(183) The value of the index of refraction was
17.647.059.
(184) It directed by the
physical Lene Hau, pioneering in the reduction of the velocity of the light who,
in February of 1999, the achievement to descend to 17 meters by
second.
4.4.6.1 Technology of Red
A pipe of glass, of 3 inches
by ¾ of inch, was filled with vapor of Rubidium and helium, to a temperature
near the point of boiling of the water.
The incident light ray on
the gas was dispelled, by totally to be absorbed by the
electrons.
The information, transported
by the ray, was modulated binary by means of uniform changes in the spin of the
electrons. For it two lasers were utilized. The first laser of control served to
change the typical form in which the light is absorbed for the atoms, that is to
say, producing that the even electrons to an orbital one with greater quantum
number to that were. Through the action of the laser of control the atoms remain
prepared so that for to absorb light and they changed the orientation of the
spin of its electrons, well to the up the orientation or down. The second laser
supplied the test light ray, with the information that engraving went binary in
the electrons.
When the gas was submitted
again to laser of control, the atoms emitted an identical pulse to incident ray
of the second laser, being recovered totally the information previously
encumbered. The information went encumbered during hundreds of
microseconds.
4.4.6.2 Technology of
Harvard
This technology reduced the
velocity of the light, by means of the super cooling off of a sodium vapor gas,
confined in a chamber submitted to a super high empty (185) and to magnetic
fields.
The velocity of the
electromagnetic wave decreases with the descent of temperature, proper to
increase in the physical density (186) of the
middle.
The temperature of the atoms
is related to their energy kinetic, therefore, techniques are used to descend
this energy and thus to achieve the descent of the temperature. The energy
kinetic of an atom is low when is struck it with a photon and absorbs it in
contrary direction to its movement. In general, the cycle of absorption -
emission of an atom occurs when the photon possesses the frequency of resonance
of the atom.
Proper, of the effect
Doppler an apparent frequency of resonance exists for the atoms that travel in
contrary direction to the photons. By means of the technique of laser called
detuning (187) causes coincides the frequency of the photons radiated with that
apparent frequency, induced in the atoms by the Doppler. In this way, is done
that the atoms absorb photons that reduce their energy kinetic and they be
chilled.
In the experiment, the gas
of sodium was chilled to a thousand millionths (188) of degree on the absolute
zero of Kelvin.
Less than 435 nano Kelvin
the phenomenon of condensation of Bose – Einstein is produced (189) that consist
of the step of the gas to a new state of the substance (190). The atoms lose its
individuality and being melted pass to the form of a super
atom.
The gas of sodium acquires a
consistency seemed to leads, that the light cannot cross. This super atom
floats, due to the action of the powerful magnetic fields, without touching the
walls of the chamber.
In previous experiments, by
means of the application of a second laser, of light of a private color, itself
achievement that the otherwise impossible, opaque right-wing sodium, leave to
pass a fraction of the test light ray and return translucent, acquiring a
plastic constitution.
This phenomenon is proper
to effect of blockade of the
process of absorption by the atoms, because the electrons easily cannot pass to
an orbital subsequent one to that
are found, on account of the own, quantum effect of interference of this state
of substance condensed. Since the absorption is partially inhibited, a fraction
of the ray of light is capable to cross, this fifth substantial state, to a
velocity considerably reduced, which went of 17 meters by second, in the
pioneering experiment. This it is the effect of transparency electromagnetic
induced.
In the experiment in which
stopped the light the gas was submitted to a greater cooling off, which produced
that the ray of the light of test remain totally trapped in the atoms of the
gas.
The cooling off of the gas
(191), initially hot, is produced utilizing several techniques. Initially, by
the application of a laser of control that, utilizing a population of three sub
levels (192), progressively uncharged the atoms of the gas, causing radiating
very brilliant light. By a new action of a laser of control the movement
aleatory of the atoms is ordered in an only direction; each time that an atom,
progressively with smaller velocity and especially tight with the other atoms,
strikes to a photon, the atom is launched in the opposite direction to which
came, being done increasingly more slow and colder, by loss of energy kinetic
and very weak radiation.
This discharge of the atoms
causes that reduce progressively its movements until remaining practically
stopped, thus the atoms conforming the super atom.
Al final of the process,
known as cooling off evaporated, the atoms, radiated again with light, are
launched out of the action of the magnetic fields.
The engraved information
during five times more than the interim reached in Red
Boulder.
(185) Hundreds of trillions
lower that the pressure of the air on the Land.
(186) A greater number of
atoms by volume.
(187) Laser is tuning inside a different
frequency from the natural frequency of the atom
(Detuning).
(188) Nanokelvins.
(189) Bose and Einstein, in
1924, they proposed that the atoms in next temperatures to absolute zero of Kelvin should form a
tight right-wing state of atoms, forming what Hau calls a globe of solid
substance, with capacity of producing waves that behave like waves of
radio.
(190) The other substantial states are the solid, liquid, gaseous
and plasma.
(191) The technique of cooling off using radiation went proposal,
in 1975, by Theodor Hansch and Arthur Schawlow for neutral atoms. The
Bose-Einstein condensation state was achieved, in 1995, by Carl Weiman in the
(192) Hyperfine states
discharged 1> , 2> and it excited
3>.
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5 The experiment of velocity superluminal based
on the technology Gain
Assisted
5 The
experiment of velocity superluminal based on the technology Gain
Assisted
5.4 The
velocity of the pulses of light
5.5 Relations
among the velocities of phase and group
5.7 The
velocities of phase and group can surpass C
5.8 The
existing problems around the greater velocity that C
5.9 The
experiment of Princeton
5.9.1 General
description of the experiment
5.9.2
Interpretation of the experiment
5.9.3 Partial
Explanations that have been given
In the world, since 1992, in
laboratory superluminal velocities are produced. Mainly, these velocities, have
utilizing the technology tunnel, employed by the pioneering group of
Gain Assisted has his
theoretical bases in the concept, formulated in 1910, by Sommerfeld and
Brillouin that of that the velocity of group, in the propagation of the
electromagnetic waves, can surpass C, without opponent resulting to the
Relativity of Einstein and in the study of the behavior of a pulse Gaussian
inside an anomalous region carried out, in 1970, by Garret and McCumber and
verified experimentally, in 1982, by Chu.
This knowledge permitted, to
group of
The group of
Gain Assisted, uses
technology laser, in a transparent anomalous region of little absorption,
created inside two lines of Gain Assisted,
to produce the phenomenon of rephase of a test light pulse, that causes
travels through is region. The transparency of the middle is natural and not the
electromagnetic induced, used in the experiments to stop the
light.
In this chapter develops the
theoretical base and the application of the technology Gain Assisted for the
production of superluminal velocities.
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5.1 The function of
wave
An individual or simple wave
(193) possesses an only frequency that extends to infinite.
The function of wave depends
on the position and the time. In any fixed instant the function of a simple
wave, considered on a plan, various sinusoidal along an axis x. And for any
fixed position the various function of sinusoidal wave with the time. A complete
cycle of the wave can be associated with an angular displacement of 2 π
radians.
The angular frequency (194)
ω of a wave is the number of radians by unit of time, in a fixed position. The
number of wave k is the number of radians by unit of distance in a fixed time.
In terms of these parameters the function of wave it
expresses:
A (t, x) = A0 cos (kx – w
t)
A is the amplitude of the
wave and A0 is the maximum amplitude of the function of
wave.
The combination of two or
more waves of different angular frequency and length generates a wave that wraps
them. Likewise, being the enveloping wave of the amplitudes of a
wave.
The enveloping wave or
resultant of the sum of two waves is obtained with the following
function:
A (x, t) = 2cos(kx – ω t) cos (Δ kx –
Δ
t)
(193) The simple wave is ideal, since physically what exist are
packages of waves, thus be, inside a closely band.
(194) The angular frequency measures the frequency of change of the
phase that is to say, of the step of crest to valley, or vice
versa.
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5.2 Velocity of
phase
In the practice the phase of
wave is defined like the interval among two maximums, most minimum or zeros
consecutive points of the wave.
Due to that ω is the number
of radians of the wave that pass in a position by unit of time and 1/k is the
spatial length of the wave by radiate, then the velocity of the wave is the
number of radians of the wave that pass in a position by unit of time, divided
among the spatial length of the wave by radian, that is to say, v = ω / k or
velocity in which the form of the wave it is
moving.
The velocity in which any
fixed phase of the cycle it displaces, is called phase velocity of the wave.
The velocity of phase is
defined for waves of a same frequency and length that present its phase
synchronized, that is to say, views since the front of wave all the front
presents exact coincidence in phase, to ready well be of crest or valley, this
is, coincident to a same length of the source of the wave. Consequently, the
velocity of phase refers to an electromagnetic wave confined to an only
frequency and length of wave, thus for the luminous spectrum will be a specific
color, for example, the red color.
The velocity of phase
adopted conventionally is that of the front of a wave (195), of a specific
frequency and length.
The velocity of phase, vf, also, it expresses in terms of
the cycle of the angular frequency w and of the length of wave
l, by means of the
equation:
vf = λ x ω ; that is to say,
length wave times the angular frequency
The velocity of phase of the
electromagnetic wave is the velocity with which the photons are moving in the
vacuum or in a substantial middle with which interact. Nevertheless, due to that
a wave in general does not imply flows of causality on any physical effect, not
a most maximum limit for the velocity of phase of the wave exists, by which
necessarily should not correspond to the energy transportation velocity or of a
sign, for which supposedly the limit of velocity exists C (196).
A sign always is not a
simple periodic wave; also, a sign can be not a simple periodic wave. By this the notion of phase results an
ambiguous notion. Under the context that the velocity of the sign is equal to
the velocity of phase of the wave, then, this is defined like the velocity of
the edge where begins the head or finishes the queue of the wave. The
transportation of a sign implies to modulate the sign with the frequency or the
amplitude of a wave of transportation.
(195) The front of wave is the surfaces defined by the place that
occupies the points of wave that have the same phase. The front of wave is
perpendicular to ray that represents the electromagnetic wave. For parallel rays
the front of wave is plan. For divergent rays since a point or convergences
toward a point, the front of wave is aspheric. For rays that vary of divergence
or convergence, the front of wave, has other forms, such as ellipsoids or
paraboloides, depending on the nature of the source. To ways, the plan in which
the vectors of the magnetic and electric fields conjugate is tangent to every
point of the front of wave. The vector that represents the front of wave
indicates the direction of propagation of the wave. It should be distinguished
of the front of head of a pulse.
(196) Theory of the Relativity
of Einstein.
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5.3 Velocity of
group
In the reality, what exist
are packages of waves due to that in our Universe (197) the origin of the
electromagnetic wave are the processes of absorption – emission of photons on
the part of the atoms, it which radiate inside a rank of components spectrals,
in exchange for a pure and only frequency.
The superimposition of two
nearby frequencies waves produce groups or packages of waves. The crest of an
individual wave travels with the velocity of phase, which is identical to the
velocity of the wave; the packages of waves travel with the velocity of group
(198).
Therefore, the velocity of
group is defined for a mixture of waves of different frequency and is for
convention the velocity with which spreads the peak of a package of waves.
The velocity of phase of the
composed waves constituted by two or more simple waves is Δ w / Δ k. And due to that,
these waves, contain an internal group of waves, its velocity of phase is called
velocity of group.
The wave is an energy
transportation phenomenon. The energy spreads with the velocity of group, being
able to be moved quicker or slower than the individual waves provided that
according to the Relativity do not surpass C. This is called
dispersion.
(197) Not thus it occurs
during the Big-Bang when, without existing atoms, the electromagnetic wave is
originated from the supergravity. Which it tests the existence of the transition
among gravitons and photons, to super highest energies that the author demands
since 1969.
(198) The velocity of group is the velocity with which the energy
spreads (Brillouin and Sommerfeld).
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5.4 The velocity of the pulses of
light
A pulse of light, of finite
duration, is necessarily the sum of an infinite number of waves of different
phases, lengths, and frequencies. These waves interfere constructively, being
reinforced in some places where the phases coincide, and destructively in other
places of the waves, where the phases are
cancelled.
The total result of the
interference of the waves is the form of the pulse, which presents its peak in
the zone where the major number of waves are reinforced and the minimums in the
zones where the major number of waves are cancelled, placed to both sides of the
zone that presents the peak, in the case of the pulse Gaussian
(199).
A pulse light of a micro
duration is a combination of waves of different frequency, inside a very narrow
band of rank.
The velocity of the pulse is
the velocity of group while the components travel to its own velocity of
phase.
(199) It is called queues.
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5.5 Relations among the velocities of phase and
group
The velocity of phase and
group in the vacuum is the same speed and equal to the velocity of the photons
that compose the package of waves, that is to say, equal to C. This is due to
that in the vacuum the velocity of phase is the same speed for any frequency
and, therefore, the velocity of the group equal to the only velocity of phase.
Now, that only velocity of phase is C, because, the difference of energy among
the photons that compose each wave of different frequency and different length
of wave in the vacuum is not prominent and all the photons travel in a
continuous way to the velocity C.
In any another middle, that
do not be the vacuum, the interaction that suffer the photons, with the atoms
components of the middle, produces that the velocity of the wave differ of the
velocity of the photon, as a result of that the waves are facts of photons and
these are subject to absorption.
In substantial middle, of
normal dispersion, the interaction of the photon with the atoms, cause a retard,
but, in the anomalous middle, advancement in the traffic of the wave with
respect to when the wave spreads in the vacuum. The retard is different for
photons of different energy, due to the difference of the interim of the cycle
absorption – emission of the photons on the part of the atoms. This interim
depends on the type of atoms that compose the material, of a substantial medium
determined, and of the energy of each type of
photons.
Thus, in a same substantial
middle, the photons of waves of different frequency possess different time of
interaction with the atoms and the photons of a same energy possess different
time of interaction in different substantial middle. The result is that the
velocity of the photon, phase, and group pass to be
different.
In substantial middle of
normal dispersion, while the photon conserves the velocity C, the phase and the
group have different velocities and lesser than C. In the anomalous middle the
velocity of group surpasses C.
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5.6
Dispersion
So much the velocity of
group as the velocity of phase depend on the middle through which spreads the
wave to cause that a fixed relation among the number of wave exists k and the
angular frequency of the wave w , dependent of the middle.
This fixed relation this determined by the index of refraction, which is equal
to C / vf.
But, the velocity of an
electromagnetic wave in a middle is C / n (v), where n (v) is the index of
refraction, which so much of the constitution of a middle specific one depends as of the frequency
of the wave. Of such way, those different frequencies in a same middle possess
different velocities.
On the other hand, a
relation among the velocity of group exists and the velocity of phase as
continues:
- In the vacuum and in
middle not dispersive are equals. So much of the long waves as of the short
waves, all the crests travel to the same velocity.
- In normal dispersion,
characterized because the index of refraction is directly proportional to number
of wave and to the frequency of the wave incident, the velocity of group is
smaller to the velocity of phase. This it is because the components of high
frequency are diminished more than the components of low frequency. Besides, any
sign modulated spreads with a lower velocity of group to C.
As the index of refraction
enlarges with the increment of the frequency of the electromagnetic wave, each
frequency travels with a different velocity. The velocity is increased with the
length of the wave. The crests of the long waves travel quicker than the crests
of the short waves.
The value of n (v) is
greater that 1 which produces in a pulse that suffer a retard, in front of when
the pulse moves in the vacuum.
- In anomalous dispersion
the velocity of group is greater to the velocity of phase. These middles are
characterized because the index of refraction is inversely proportional to
number of wave and to the frequency of the wave incident, that is to say,
decreases when the number of wave is increased or the frequency of the wave,
which produces that the low frequencies change less than the high. In the case
of the middle used in
The energy, in the
mechanical waves, is transported quicker than the crests of the waves and the
short waves travel quicker than the long waves. As consequence, the velocity of
group is greater that the velocity of phase and is able in the electromagnetic
waves even to come to be greater that C.
In that case, the physicists
at present discuss that the electromagnetic wave can transport energy or a sign
with the velocity of group (200), since the velocity of phase, of all the waves
constituents, are lesser than C.
An anomalous region, related
to electromagnetic waves, in the nature has a strongly absorbent behavior.
In the middle where the
effect tunnel is produced are amputated the frequency of the electromagnetic
waves and the velocity of phase can surpass C, while the velocity of group
remains lesser than C.
These middle, for example,
are the magnetic conductors holes, called guides of waves (201), that impede the
propagation of low frequencies and trim the high. Similar to as the pipes of an
organ only permit certain sounds resonant.
(200) Arnold Sommerfeld and
Lion Brillouin, in theoretical works, facts in the beginnings of the century XX,
maintain that due to the strong absorption and distortion of the middle opaque, own one of an anomalous region,
does that the group velocity notion do not have sense. With this base they did a
demonstration that neither energy nor information is able, inside an anomalous
region, to travel surpassing C.
(201) The guides of waves are utilized, by the group of Colonia, to
reach velocities of phase superluminal, by means of the technology tunnel.
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5.7 The velocities of phase and group can
surpass
C
In 1970, Geoffrey Garret and
Of McCumber that of the Bell Laboratories, in US, in a theoretical demonstration
they established that was possible to produce a pulse Gaussian undistorted with
an upper velocity of group that C, provided that the region through the one that
the pulse trip be short and the pulse have a wide strait. In 1982, this
experimentally it was confirmed for Steven Chu and Stephen Wong.
On, various experiments have
been carried out; where utilizing different technologies, velocities of phase
have been generated or greater group that C, that has been called superluminal
(202). Not thus for the velocity of the photon
(203).
At present, is discussed if
has been transported or not energy or signs to a greater velocity that C
(204).
(202) Not only in anomalous
regions but still in the vacuum, as is the case of the superluminal experiments
carried out in
(203) In the experiments of
(204) The professor doctor Gunter Nimtz assures that yes.
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5.8 The existing problems around the greater
velocity that
C
Nevertheless:
- Of the existence of the
notion that the velocity of transportation of the energy is the velocity of
group.
- To be employed the same
equation for the calculation of the velocity of groups when is lesser than the
velocity of phase and when the result is the
opponent.
- And of not being objected,
in the first case, that the velocity of transportation of the energy can be
lower to the velocities of phase of the waves constituents.
When, in the other case, is
presented that the energy can be transported with a greater velocity of group
that the velocities of phase this is said is impossible and, then, the velocity
of group no longer is the velocity of transportation of the
energy.
Surely, would nothing be
objected neither there would be reelaboration of the notion of the
transportation of the energy, with the velocity of group, of not being that this
velocity can surpass the velocity C.
Which is the velocity of
transportation of the energy or of a sign? It is not the velocity of phase,
since a sign requires of a wave of transportation and of the wave of the sign
and, if is a matter of the transportation of energy, also, the velocity of phase
has surpassed C.
The problem of fund is the
theoretical framework used, which based on the Relativity of Einstein, prohibits
be able the mass, energy or information to travel quicker than C. If as, for
example, proposes it Tom Van Flandern, it is utilized the Relativity of Lorentz
the energy transportation velocities and of information above C are
possible.
Nevertheless, the physical
problem is the strong distortion suffered by the pulse of light, due to that a
large quantity of its energy is absorbed, when its velocity of group surpasses
C.
This great absorption does
that the velocities of transportation so much of the energy as of the
information remain more less than C and left behind in front of the velocity of
the peak of the wave (206).
Therefore, when it seems is
a matter of a technical problem whose solution depends on reducing to not
significant levels the loss of energy (207).
In the superluminal
experiments carried out, in the past 10 years, with the technology tunnel the
energy transmitted has been too much scarce, but, of all ways energy has been
transmitted.
(205) The superluminal velocities reached have done confused the
concepts of the velocities of the energy, sign and group, the ones that can
coincide or not.
(206) But, the peak of all
ways represents energy.
(207) The group of Princeton
utilized a middle transparent one,
inside two lines of Gain Assisted,
so that the edge of head of the pulse, that was the one that entered to the
chamber, to suffer very little absorption and, on the contrary, to receive
necessary electromagnetic energy for its process of rephase .
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5.9 The experiment of
Princeton
This experiment was carried
out, in April of 2000, in Princeton, by the group of Lijun Wang, Alaxander Kuzmitch, and Arthur Dogariu, in the NEC Research
Institute, US.
In this superluminal
experiment, by means of the technology Gain Assisted, manages to maintain,
without suffering important distortion, a test light pulse and to surpass the
velocity C, in a transparent anomalous middle of dispersion.
But, cloning the pulse from
the destructive interference of the waves that compose it, inside the front of
its title, by Gain Assisted, which conducts to reproduce it advanced and has
that the pulse at the outset of the superluminal region, to though equal and
built from the same pulse, is not pulse of
entrance.
This it creates the
impression that energy has been transported above C. Nevertheless, the
physically extraordinary fact is that two points of the space were bound through
a velocity superluminal 310 times C, without violation of the principle of
causality existing. This communication above the velocity C, the author, since
1969, and the scientific American Tom Van Flandern, since 1998,
demands it for the phenomenon of the gravitation.
The experiment of
The physical base, of this
experiment, is analogous to effect that the normal regions of dispersion produce
on the electromagnetic waves, but, contrary because utilizes the atomic process
of emission to provide photons to pulse in exchange for removing them to him
and, therefore, produces a contrary result, as is that of enlarging the velocity
of group above C, proper to phenomenon of rephase of the pulse, only possible in
the electromagnetic phenomenon. The effects of the transparent region of
anomalous dispersion, among two lines of Gain Assisted,
are:
1. The natural cycle of
absorption of the atoms is scarce, on account of the weak interaction among the
atoms and the waves of the pulse of test, as a result of the transparent nature
of that region, that is to say, to its little physical
density.
2. On the other hand, the
two lines of gain, inside which that region has been created, produces the
effect that the electromagnetic waves components of a pulse that cross it, by
means of the process of gain assisted the pulses receive energy of the existing
atoms in a substantial middle, which are forced to suffer transition Raman (208)
and has to place photons, inside the an envelope Gain region the front of head
test.
The most prominent
characteristics of the experiment of
- For the first time,
reaching an upper velocity that C, the form of the pulse of the light of test is
conserved, without great attenuation, amplification or
distortion.
- The velocity of group
surpasses 310 times the velocity C.
- The velocity of group
superluminal is an effect of the interaction photon-photon, among a ray of light
and an anomalous middle of Gain Assisted, enriched in photons (209).
By means of the novel
technology Gain assisted (210), in an anomalous region of dispersion, but, with
properties of a transparent middle, was created a class of optic machine clones
of pulses (211).
(208) by means of lasers, the
technique of transition Raman achieves the manipulation of the emission of
photons, on the part of the atoms of a middle, placing the photons inside a
specific electromagnetic band, created inside the middle. This band stores
energy and returns an anomalous region of Gain Assisted, with maximums in the
frequencies that enclose the band.
(209) The interaction photon-photon is little acquaintance. The
experiment of
(210) Which it utilizes a natural region of transparency, there is
difference of the electromagnetic transparency induced, as it does Lene Hau in
its experiments to stop the light.
(211) Middle that it stores electromagnetic
energy.
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5.9.1 General description of the
experiment
A gas of cesium, to 30
centigrade degrees, was placed in a chamber of glass Pyrex, covered with
paraffin (212), of 6 centimeters of length, under a magnetic field uniform,
parallel to the direction of propagation of the
light.
This field produces the
effect Zeeman promoting and separating the sub levels of energy of the structure
hyperfine. The fundamental purpose went to generate two frequencies, very
closed, pertaining to the states discharged ½ 1> and
½ 2>, of an atomic
population of three states.
In the experiment they were
used three lasers, two of control and the third of
test.
Using light polarized, of
the two lasers of control, by means of the technique of optician pumps, applied
to an atomic population of three states, the electrons of the shells more
externs (213), closely the totality of the atoms of the gas of cesium, were
positions in the state discharged ½ 1> (214), colder of the
assembly of the 16 quantum states, to a next temperature to absolute zero of Kelvin(215), which does
not occur in the nature, since a normal population of atoms, as initially was
the vapor of cesium, presents certain significant quantity of them in state
excited, besides, to a temperature environment.
The technique to put the
electrons in a specific atomic quantum state, using a combination of light
polarized and the decay natural of the atoms to a discharged state is that of
optician pumps (216). This technique went used for first to put the most
totality of the atoms of the cesium in the state ½ 1>. In the optician
pumps there was control of the effect Doppler, due to which the experiment was
carried out in conditions of to most rest of the atoms. Then, Gain Assisted, by
means of the two lasers of control, was produced two intense continuous rays of
light, with different frequency, inside a narrow band, adjusted to interior of the structure hyperfine, in
the sub levels of energy of the discharged state ½ 1> and the excited state
½ 3>
(217).
Inside the band a
transparent anomalous region is created, among the two lines of gain (218),
notably separated so much of the discharged state ½ 1> as of the excited
state
½ 3>, to though,
intermeddled among these two levels of energy.
A pulse of test is emitted
on the transparent anomalous region, whose edge of head when it penetrated it
causes that transition Raman occur (219) in the atoms of
cesium.
Simultaneous to the entrance
of the front of head, of the pulse of test, inside the anomalous region, the
lasers of control send energy to the atoms of the cesium since the two lines of
gain. The atoms of cesium in the discharged state ½ 1> absorb the energy
pumped by the lasers of control and by reemission place it inside the anomalous
zone, while pass to discharged state ½ 2> (220). In this way,
the narrow electromagnetic band, among the two specific frequencies of gain,
receives energy of the atoms of cesium and power the energy of the waves, that
in destructive interference, compose the edge of head of the pulse of test,
generating its process of rephase .
The pulse of test produces
it the third laser, called of test, with a frequency closed to state
½ 2> and with smaller
intensity that that of the rays of the laser of control. The edge of the front
of head of the pulse of the laser of test travels to negative velocity of group
-C/310 inside the medium assets, which signifies that without to have entered
the peak of the pulse of test is obtained a peak retorts at the outset. Before,
that the transition be produced Raman, the edge of the front of head of the
pulse of test experiences a small gain
to enter to medium, to most
without reflection, that compensates any loss that the pulse could suffer. If
the frequency of the pulse is out of the anomalous region the pulse would travel
under the velocity C. This speed >C is only inside of the transparent
anomalous region of gain and only in the terms of the velocity of group of
wave.
The pulse of test presents
its peak where the majority of the frequencies of its waves components coincide
in phase, but, in the edge that precedes it the frequencies are out of
phase.
The edge of the pulse of
test to begin to enter the anomalous region suffers the effect of refraction,
with an index closed to 1, but, with slightly negative slope, in front of the
frequencies of the pulse of test incident (221), which causes change immediately
the long frequencies in short and vice versa, maintaining all the necessary
information to reconstruct the original pulse to the exit of the anomalous
region.
The entrance of the edge of
the front of the ray causes that the excess of energy, by means of the
transition Raman, initiate the process of absorption - emission of the atoms of
cesium, existing out of the transparent region, without the light of the ray of
the laser of test reach these atoms.
Which it produces by on the
part of the atoms of cesium, the emission of photons on the anomalous region
because power the process of rephase of the edge of the pulse of test and in the
limit at the outset of the chamber be produce by reflection a first pulse
retorts of the pulse and due to the high energy stored in the region be produce
by refraction a second pulse, Also retorts because
The peak of the pulse
refracted to the exit of the chamber, leaves before that the peak of the pulse
of test have entered to the chamber. As a result of the advance with velocity
–C/310 that suffers the pulse of test inside the chamber the pulse refracted of
light leaves 310 quicker times with respect to when the pulse of test crosses in
the vacuum the same distance of the anomalous
region.
This pulse refracted
abandons the chamber 60 nanoseconds before that the pulse of test it to have
done, time in which the pulse refracted travels through 18,8 meters far from the
chamber. The velocity of group of the wave is greater that C because the gain of
the first anomalous region affects the edge of the front of the pulse of
test.
In turn the pulse reflected
traveled, in direction of the pulse of test, to a negative velocity -C/300, that
is to say, 300C, with which was found at the moment of the entrance from its
peak to the anomalous region. The peak of the pulse of test and the peak of the
pulse reflected when they find occur the destructive phenomenon of
interference of their wave components and they finished mutually being
cancelled.
So much the pulse reflected
like the refracted are essentially equal to test
pulse.
(212) in order to reduce to
most minimum the distortion of the polarization of the spin of the electrons, in
the state discharged, which is produced by the collisions of the atoms against
the walls of the chamber.
(213) In the atom of Cesium the electrons can be in 16 quantum
states.
(214) In the sublevel of the structure hyperfine F = 4, m =
-4.
(215) The absolute zero of Kelvin equals to - 273 centigrade
degrees.
(216) Alfred Kastler, in 1966,
gained the prize Nobel by its development.
(217) Sublevel of energy F =
4, m=-3 of the state excited 6P3/2
(218) D1 and
D2.
(219) The transition Raman, in the experiment, consist of that the
atoms of cesium pass, inside the structure hyperfine, of the state discharged)
½ 1> to discharged state
½ 2>, of greater level of
energy, and additionally, produce radiation of very weak energy. The Raman
transition is caused by means of the action of lasers on the atoms of the
middle.
(220) Sublevel of the
structure hyperfine F = 4, m=-2
(221) An index of refraction with pending negative does not signify
an index of refraction negative. The doctor Aephraim Steinberg declared me that
the index of refraction was closed to 1, which does not signify that did not
vary smoothly, causing the effect of the pending negative, during the
interaction of the waves of the pulse with the anomalous
region.
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5.9.2 Interpretation of the
experiment
An electromagnetic pulse
Gaussian, as the used of test, presents the form of a bell with fronts of queue
and head (222) of amplitude zero. And, the front of head of the pulse Gaussian
is extended to infinite.
The peak of a pulse is
presented where the major number of waves that compose coincide it in phase, due
to that all the phases are reinforced, by constructive interference. On the
contrary, the minimums of the pulse appear where the major number of waves are
found out of phase, due to that by destructive interference the phases are
cancelled. This occurs in the fronts of queue and head.
Inside the transparent
anomalous region, among the two lines of gain, the pulses propagation phenomenon
in dispersive middle is produced.
Any middle different to vacuum is dispersive middle, which
signifies that the waves components of a pulse travel to different velocities
inside the middle while in the vacuum all travel to the velocity C.
The dispersive medium can be
opaque, when absorbs resonant the light and produces radiation of microwave,
which is known like a highly absorbent middle.
Or the dispersive medium can
be transparent when leaves to pass well part of the light incident without
suffering the process of absorption, that is to say, little absorbent.
These dispersive middle can
be normal when reduce the velocity of group of the waves components of a pulse
under C or anomalous when enlarge the velocity of group above C.
The middle used for the
production of superluminal velocities had been opaque. And, on the contrary, the
transparent middle, to though electromagnetic induced, had been utilized to
reduce until stopping the velocity of the light. The problem of the opaque
middle is that it weakens and distorts in excess the pulse that is obtained at
the outset. With the technology Gain Assisted the group of
Nevertheless, this it is
relative since the pulse at the outset is not that of entrance, but from the
pulse of entrance is created for constructive interference the pulse at the
outset. Thus same, a velocity of phase does not exist greater that C, inside the
anomalous middle, since the velocity of the individual waves of the pulse
incident to ways is closely adjusted to C, but is the result for the velocity of
group of the pulse that appears to the exit, by appearing advanced respect to
pulse of test.
The primitive concept of
Gain signifies amplification and here exactly the constructive phenomenon of
interference of the electromagnetic waves in a transparent anomalous region.
This it is at the front of the pulse incident, that is extensive to infinite, is
composed of waves totally out of phase, constituting a minimum, which in the
anomalous middle pass gradually to be coincident in phase, process of rephase,
and, therefore, to generate the most maximum peak of a new pulse that is
advanced in front of the incident. The totality of the process of rephase
retorts the pulse incident.
As a result of a
transparent, anomalous region, velocities can be
obtained:
1 Superluminal, in the
sense, that a pulse in the middle is obtained at the outset, that is the
adjacent middle to anomalous, advanced respect to step of the pulse incident
inside the anomalous middle.
2. With time of traffic
equal to zero, when a pulse in the at the outset, simultaneous middle with the
step of the pulse incident inside the anomalous middle is obtained, of such way, the peak of
the pulse created by constructive interference, appears in the exit to time that the peak of the pulse incident
enters to middle anomalous.
3. With negative time of
traffic, when the peak of the pulse created by constructive interference,
appears in the exit before that the peak of the pulse incident enters to middle
anomalous.
The difference, among these
three possible results, depends on the strong thing that is the transparent
anomalous region in energy.
(222) It is called queue of the left side and queue of the right
side.
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5.9.3 Partial Explanations that have been
given
The experiment superluminal
carried out in
Inside such structures the
scientists are born, educated and exercise its practical professional
(224).
Among the bad
interpretations of the test of
We suppose 11 runners that
participate in a circuit of 11 returns, forming a series, separated each one of
the next one for 5 kilometers that move to 30 kilometers per
hour.
Each time that complete a
return, when it crosses the goal, it is added a new running one to that goes to
the head, for to replace of the runner of queue that abandons the
career.
In this manner when it
completed the 11 returns the series of the 11 runners that left in row India now
arrive to time forming a front
rectilinear and only the runner
that left from first he finishes, due to that the remainders gradually were
replaced.
In this modality of
competence the sixth runner of departure agreed he represented the velocity of
the group, when finished the return this runner he moved 30 kilometers respect
to first of departure, then the
velocity of group was greater that the individual velocities of all, including
the own one.
With this experiment
thought, that supposedly explains that of
Nevertheless, to explain
correctly the test of
(223) Yet it has been it theoretically, to see: The experiments
indicate that the velocity of the gravity is minimum 20 thousand million times
C. Alfonso Guillén. Santafé of Bogotá. 2001.
(224) According to Woody
Allen, “to change the world children are required that in exchange for being
fall in love with White Snows fall in love with the witch”.
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Conclusions
Nevertheless, that the
interference among waves, in which form other composed, is a physical phenomenon
and, not a simple mathematical convention, that the velocity of group greater
than the velocities of phase is verified in the marine waves and that in the
terms of a basic and even popular knowledge is fully accepted that the velocity
of the light in the vacuum returns smaller, in the regions of normal dispersion,
on the other hand, it so happens that when returns greater, in the anomalous
regions of dispersion, for many physicists, of recognized prestige, apparently
is a lacking effect of physical sense.
The superluminal velocities
achieved, since the decade of the 90, of the century 20, by different teams of
scientists in different places of the world have come it interpreted with the
theories based on the Relativity of Einstein, that is to say, inside a framework
where are impossible. The scientists that have produced believe them that it
treats in fact explained with ideas based in the past, to though, timidly they
present their doubts, and they endeavor because their experiments turn out to be
forceful, showing the extraordinary find. This happening somewhat similar to
what happened with the discovery of
Since 1969, the author
demands that the gravitatory interaction occurs with a greater velocity that
speed of the photon, and nevertheless this phenomenon does not violate the
principle of causality, to though, refutes the erroneous conception of the
Relativity of Einstein about the world. In 1998, the scientific American one Tom
Van Flandern reckoned that the velocity of the propagation of the gravity is
minimum 20 thousand million times that of the photon and he presents the need to
abandon the theory of the Relativity of Einstein. The diverse superluminal
experiments thus are beginning it to indicate.
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61. Phase, Group, and Signal
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INDICATE OF MATTERS
1.3 Properties of the
components of the atom
1.4 Electromagnetic
Interaction
1.6 Force of the
photons on the atoms
1.7 Quantum Structure
of the orbital
Board 1. Plan of the quantum structure of the
electrons in the atom
1.8 Fine Structures
and hyperfine inside the orbital
1.10 The constant one
of the fine structure
1.13 The evolution of
the electron inside the orbital
1.14 The orbital
transition of the electrons and the types of
radiation
Board 2.
Electromagnetic type of radiation according to the type of
transition
Chapter 2. The
electromagnetic wave
2.1 What is the
electromagnetic wave?
2.3 Anatomy of the
electromagnetic wave
2.4.2 Reflection,
refraction and diffraction
2.5 The transportation
of energy
Board 3. Composition
of the electromagnetic spectrum according to type of
radiation
2.7 Properties of the
lines spectrals
2.8 Some prominent
properties of the electromagnetic types of
waves
Chapter 3. The atom
and the electromagnetism and its application to
laser
3.1 The processes of
emission – absorption
3.2 The interaction
Hamiltonian
3.3 ¿Which is the
mechanism of the interaction among the atom and the electromagnetic
field?
3.5 The
electromagnetic emission
3.6 The
electromagnetic absorption
3.7 ¿What other
effects exist in the processes of emission and
absorption?
3.8 Universal
Principle of the interaction photon – charged
particle
3.9 The equation of
wave of Schrodinger (SWE)
3.12 The production of
the laser
3.12.2 The atomic
populations invested
3.12.3 The two basic
states of a population of atoms
3.12.4 Process of
optician pumps
3.12.5 Process of
emission stimulated of coherent light
3.13 Atomic
Populations of three states
3.15 The polarization
of Rabi and that of the spin of the photon
3.16 Effects
distorting potential of the laser
3.16.4 The profile of
the Doppler in the laser
3.17 The covering of
the walls of the cavity of the laser
3.18 Transportation of
data, voice, and image
3.19 Lasers of pulse
and continuous
3.21 The action of two
laser rays
Part 2. The
superluminal velocities
Chapter 4. The
electromagnetic interaction with the substantial middle and the subluminal
velocities
4.1 Velocities of the
photon, the energy, sign, phase and group
4.2 The
electromagnetic interaction in the limit among two
middles
4.3 The division of
the electromagnetic wave in pulses
4.4 Mechanisms of the
reflection and refraction
4.4.1 Refraction of
mechanical waves
4.4.2 Refraction of
the electromagnetic wave
4.4.3 Mechanical
Reflection of waves
4.4.4 Reflection of
the electromagnetic wave
4.4.5 Internal
Reflection total
4.4.6 The velocity
zero of the light
5 The experiment of
velocity superluminal based on the technology Gain
Assisted
5.4 The velocity of
the pulses of light
5.5 Relations among
the velocities of phase and group
5.7 The velocities of
phase and group can surpass C
5.8 The existing
problems around the greater velocity that C
5.9 The experiment of
Princeton
5.9.1 General
description of the experiment
5.9.2 Interpretation
of the experiment
5.9.3 Partial
Explanations that have been given
OTHER WORKS OF THE
AUTHOR
WORKS OF THE AUTHOR: